The first thinker who made empirical knowledge the basis for any knowledge is Francis Bacon. He, together with Rene Descartes, proclaimed the basic principles for the New Age. Bacon's philosophy gave birth to a fundamental precept for Western thinking: knowledge is power. It was in science that he saw the most powerful tool for progressive social change. But who was this famous philosopher, what is the essence of his doctrine?

Childhood and youth

The founder Bacon was born on January 22, 1561 in London. His father was a senior official at the court of Elizabeth. The atmosphere at home, the education of his parents, undoubtedly influenced little Francis. At twelve he was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge University. Three years later he was sent to Paris as part of a royal mission, but the young man soon returned due to the death of his father. In England, he took up jurisprudence, and very successfully. However, he considered his successful work as a lawyer only as a springboard to a political and public career. Undoubtedly, the entire subsequent philosophy of F. Bacon experienced the experiences of this period. Already in 1584 he was first elected in the court of James the First Stuart, there was a rapid rise of the young politician. The king granted him many ranks, awards and high positions.

Career

The philosophy of Bacon is closely connected with the reign of the First. In 1614, the king dissolved the parliament completely and ruled virtually single-handedly. However, in need of advisers, Jacob brought Sir Francis closer to him. Already by 1621, Bacon was appointed Lord of the High Chancellery, Baron Verulamsky, Viscount of St. Albany, Keeper of the Royal Seal and an honorary member of the so-called Privy Council. When, nevertheless, it became necessary for the king to reassemble the parliament, the parliamentarians did not forgive such an elevation to an ordinary former lawyer, and he was sent to rest. An outstanding philosopher and politician died on April 9, 1626.

Compositions

During the years of troublesome court service, the empirical philosophy of F. Bacon developed due to his interest in science, law, morality, religion and ethics. His writings glorified their author as a great thinker and the actual ancestor of the entire philosophy of modern times. In 1597, the first work entitled "Experiments and Instructions" was published, which was then revised twice and reprinted many times. In 1605, the essay “On the Significance and Success of Knowledge, Divine and Human” was published. After his departure from politics, Francis Bacon, whose quotations can be seen in many modern works of philosophy, delved into his mental research. In 1629, the "New Organon" was published, and in 1623 - "On the Merits and Multiplication of Science." Bacon's philosophy, briefly and concisely presented in allegorical form for a better understanding of the broad masses, was reflected in the utopian story "New Atlantis". Other excellent works: "On Heaven", "On the Beginnings and Causes", "The History of King Henry the Seventeenth", "The History of Death and Life".

Main thesis

All the scientific and ethical thought of modern times was anticipated by the philosophy of Bacon. It is very difficult to summarize its entire array, but it can be said that the main purpose of the work of this author is to bring to a more perfect form the communication between things and the mind. It is the mind that is the highest measure of value. The philosophy of modern times and the Enlightenment, developed by Bacon, placed special emphasis on correcting the barren and vague concepts that are used in the sciences. Hence the need "with a new look to address things and to restore and in general all human knowledge."

A look at science

Francis Bacon, whose quotes were used by almost all eminent philosophers of the New Age, believed that science since the time of the ancient Greeks had made very little progress in understanding and studying nature. People began to think less about the initial principles and concepts. Thus, Bacon's philosophy calls on posterity to pay attention to the development of science and do it to improve all life. He spoke out against prejudices about science, sought recognition of scientific research and scientists. It was from him that a sharp change in European culture began, it was from his thoughts that many areas of modern philosophy grew. From a suspicious occupation in the eyes of the people of Europe, science is becoming a prestigious and important field of knowledge. In this regard, many philosophers, scientists and thinkers follow in the footsteps of Bacon. Scholasticism, which was completely divorced from technical practice and the knowledge of nature, is being replaced by science, which has a close connection with philosophy and relies on special experiments and experiments.

A look at education

In his book The Great Restoration of the Sciences, Bacon drew up a well-thought-out and detailed plan for changing the entire education system: its funding, approved regulations and statutes, and the like. He was one of the first politicians and philosophers to emphasize the importance of activities to provide funds for education and experimentation. Bacon also stated the need to revise the teaching programs at universities. Even now, getting acquainted with Bacon's reflections, one can be surprised at the depth of his foresight as a statesman, scientist and thinker: the program from The Great Restoration of the Sciences is relevant to this day. It is difficult to imagine how revolutionary it was in the seventeenth century. It was thanks to Sir Francis that the seventeenth century in England became "the century of great scientists and scientific discoveries." It was Bacon's philosophy that became the forerunner of such modern disciplines as sociology, the economics of science and science of science. The main contribution of this philosopher to the practice and theory of science was that he saw the need to bring scientific knowledge under a methodological and philosophical justification. The philosophy of F. Bacon was aimed at the synthesis of all sciences into a single system.

Science differentiation

Sir Francis wrote that the most correct division of man's knowledge is that of the three natural faculties of the rational soul. History in this scheme corresponds to memory, philosophy is reason, and poetry is imagination. History is divided into civil and natural. Poetry is divided into parabolic, dramatic and epic. The most detailed consideration is the classification of philosophy, which is divided into a huge number of subspecies and types. Bacon also separates it from "divinely inspired theology", which he leaves exclusively to theologians and theologians. Philosophy is divided into natural and transcendent. The first block includes teachings about nature: physics and metaphysics, mechanics, mathematics. It is they who form the backbone of such a phenomenon as the philosophy of the New Age. Bacon thinks on a large scale and broadly about man. In his ideas there is a doctrine about the body (this includes medicine, athletics, art, music, cosmetics), and a doctrine about the soul, which has many subsections. It includes such sections as ethics, logic (the theory of memory, discovery, judgment) and "civil science" (which includes the doctrine of business relations, about the state, about the government). Bacon's complete classification does not leave without due attention any of the areas of knowledge that existed at that time.

"New Organon"

Bacon's philosophy, summarized above, flourishes in The New Organon. It begins with a reflection on what a person, the interpreter and servant of nature, understands and does, comprehends in the order of nature by thinking or deed. The philosophy of Bacon and Descartes, his actual contemporary, is a new milestone in the development of world thought, as it involves the renewal of science, the complete elimination of false concepts and "ghosts", which, according to these thinkers, deeply engulfed the human mind and took root in it. The New Organon expresses the opinion that the old medieval church-scholastic way of thinking is in a deep crisis, and this kind of knowledge (as well as the corresponding methods of research) are imperfect. Bacon's philosophy is based on the fact that the path of knowledge is extremely difficult, since the knowledge of nature is like a labyrinth in which it is necessary to make one's way, and the paths of which are varied and often deceptive. And those who usually lead people along these paths often go astray themselves and increase the number of wanderers and wanderers. That is why there is an urgent need to carefully study the principles of obtaining new scientific knowledge and experience. The philosophy of Bacon and Descartes, and then Spinoza, is based on the establishment of an integral structure and methodology of knowledge. The first task here is the purification of the mind, its release and preparation for creative work.

"Ghosts" - what is it?

Bacon's philosophy speaks of the purification of the mind so that it approaches the truth, which consists in three revelations: the revelation of the generated mind of man, philosophies and proofs. Accordingly, four "ghosts" are also distinguished. What's this? These are the hindrances that hinder true, authentic consciousness:

1) "ghosts" of the genus, which have a basis in human nature, in the genus of people, "in the tribe";

2) "ghosts" of the cave, that is, the delusions of a particular person or group of people, which are caused by the "cave" of the individual or group (that is, the "small world");

3) "ghosts" of the market, which stem from the communication of people;

4) the "ghosts" of the theater, instilling in the soul from perverse laws and dogmas.

All these factors must be discarded and refuted by the triumph of reason over prejudice. It is the social and educational function that is the basis of the doctrine of this kind of interference.

"Ghosts" of the genus

Bacon's philosophy maintains that such disturbances are inherent in the human mind, which tends to attribute much more uniformity and order to things than is actually found in nature. The mind seeks to artificially fit new data and facts to fit its beliefs. A person succumbs to arguments and arguments that most amaze the imagination. The limitations of knowledge and the connection of the mind with the world of feelings are the problems of the philosophy of the New Age, which the great thinkers tried to solve with their writings.

"Ghosts" of the cave

They arise from the diversity of people: some love more particular sciences, others are inclined to general philosophizing and reasoning, others revere ancient knowledge. These differences, which stem from individual characteristics, significantly obscure and distort knowledge.

"Ghosts" of the market

These are the products of the misuse of names and words. According to Bacon, this is where the features of the philosophy of the New Age originate, which are aimed at combating sophistical inaction, verbal skirmishes and disputes. Names and names can be given to things that do not exist, and theories are created about this, false and empty. For a while, fiction becomes real, and this is the paralyzing influence for knowledge. More complex "ghosts" grow out of ignorant and bad abstractions that are put into wide scientific and practical use.

"Ghosts" of the theater

They do not secretly enter the mind, but are transmitted from perverse laws and fictitious theories and perceived by other people. Bacon's philosophy classifies the "ghosts" of the theater into forms of erroneous opinion and thinking (empiricism, sophistry and superstition). There are always negative consequences for practice and science that are caused by a fanatical and dogmatic adherence to pragmatic empiricism or metaphysical speculation.

Teaching about method: the first requirement

Francis Bacon appeals to people whose minds are shrouded in habit and captivated by it, who do not see the need to dismember the whole picture of nature and the way of things in the name of contemplating the one and the whole. It is with the help of “fragmentation”, “separation”, “separation” of the processes and bodies that make up nature, one can establish oneself in the integrity of the universe.

The doctrine of method: the second requirement

This paragraph specifies the specifics of "dismemberment". Bacon believes that separation is not a goal, but a means by which the lightest and simplest components can be distinguished. The subject of consideration here should be the most concrete and simple bodies, as if they "open in their nature in its usual course."

Teaching about method: the third requirement

The search for a simple nature, a simple beginning, as Francis Bacon explains, does not mean that we are talking about specific material bodies, particles or phenomena. The goals and objectives of science are much more complex: it is necessary to take a fresh look at nature, to discover its forms, to look for the source that produces nature. We are talking about the discovery of such a law that could become the basis of activity and knowledge.

Teaching about method: the fourth requirement

Bacon's philosophy says that first of all it is necessary to prepare an "experienced and natural" history. In other words, it is necessary to enumerate and summarize what nature itself says to the mind. Consciousness, which is left to itself, and driven by itself. And already in this process, it is necessary to highlight the methodological rules and principles that can make it turn into true understanding nature.

Social and practical ideas

Sir Francis Bacon's merits as a politician and statesman should not be underestimated in any way. The scope of his social activity was enormous, what will become hallmark many philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in England. He highly appreciates mechanics and mechanical inventions, which, in his opinion, are incomparable with spiritual factors and influence human affairs more qualitatively. As well as wealth, which becomes a social value, in contrast to the ideal of scholastic asceticism. Technical and societies are unreservedly endorsed by Bacon, as is technical development. He has a positive attitude towards the modern state and economic system, which will also be characteristic of many philosophers of later times. Francis Bacon confidently advocates the expansion of the colonies, gives detailed advice on painless and "fair" colonization. As a direct participant in British politics, he speaks well of the activities of industrial and commercial companies. The personality of a simple honest businessman, an enterprising entrepreneur, causes Bacon's sympathy. He gives many recommendations regarding the most humane and preferred methods and ways of personal enrichment. Bacon sees an antidote against riots and unrest, as well as poverty, in a flexible policy, subtle state attention to the needs of the public and an increase in the wealth of the population. The specific methods that he recommends are tax regulation, the opening of new trade routes, the improvement of crafts and agriculture, and incentives for manufactories.

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abstract

In the discipline "Fundamentals of Philosophy"

Topic:" Philosophy of Francis Bacon"

Completed by: Sveshnikova D.I.

Angarsk, 2014

Introduction

1. Biography

2. A new period in the development of philosophy

3. Scientific works of F. Bacon

4. The influence of Bacon's teachings on natural science in the 16th-17th centuries.

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

The new time is a time of great efforts and significant discoveries that were not appreciated by contemporaries, and became understandable only when their results eventually became one of the decisive factors in the life of human society. This is the time of the birth of the foundations of modern natural science, the prerequisites for the accelerated development of technology, which will later lead society to an economic revolution.

The philosophy of Francis Bacon is the philosophy of the English Renaissance. She is multifaceted. Bacon combines in it both innovation and tradition, science and literary creativity, based on the philosophy of the Middle Ages.

Relevance of the topic.

The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that philosophy itself teaches that a person can and must choose and implement his life, his tomorrow, relying on his own mind. Philosophy has always played a special role in the formation and formation of human spiritual culture, associated with its centuries-old experience of critically reflective reflection on deep values ​​and life orientations. Philosophers at all times and epochs have taken on the function of clarifying the problems of human existence, each time re-raising the question of what a person is, how he should live, what to focus on, how to behave during periods of cultural crises. One of the significant thinkers of philosophy is Francis Bacon, whose life path and concepts we will consider in our work.

Objective.

To establish the influence of the works of F. Bacon on the new theory of knowledge, called empiricism in the period of the "New Age" of the development of philosophy. If in the Middle Ages philosophy developed in alliance with theology, and in the Renaissance - with art and humanitarian knowledge, then in the 17th century. philosophy has chosen natural and exact sciences as its ally.

Tasks:

1. Study the biography of F. Bacon

2. Consider the prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of the philosophy of the "New Age".

3. To analyze the views of F. Bacon on the awareness of the surrounding world of the 17th century.

4. Consider the influence of the philosophy of F. Bacon on the philosophy of the 17th century.

1. Biography

Francis Bacon Born January 22, 1561 in London at York House on the Strand. In the family of one of the highest dignitaries at the court of Queen Elizabeth - Sir Nicholas Bacon. Bacon's mother, Anna Cook, came from the family of Sir Anthony Cook, the educator of King Edward VI, was well educated, spoke foreign languages, was interested in religion, translated theological treatises and sermons into English.

In 1573, Francis entered Trinity College, Cambridge University. Three years later, Bacon, as part of the English mission, went to Paris, performs a number of diplomatic assignments, which gives him rich experience in getting acquainted with politics, court and religious life not only in France, but also in other countries of the continent - Italian principalities, Germany, Spain, Poland, Denmark and Sweden, which resulted in his notes "On the State of Europe". In 1579, due to the death of his father, he was forced to return to England. As the youngest son in the family, he receives a modest inheritance and is forced to think about his future position.

The first step in Bacon's independent activity was jurisprudence. In 1586 he became the elder of the legal corporation. But jurisprudence did not become the main subject of Francis's interests. In 1593, Bacon was elected to the House of Commons in Middlesex County, where he gained fame as an orator. Initially, he adhered to the opinions of the opposition in a protest about an increase in taxes, then becomes a supporter of the government. In 1597, the first work that brings Bacon wide fame is published - a collection of short sketches, or essays containing reflections on moral or political topics 1 - "Experiments or Instructions", belong to the best fruits that my pen could bring by the grace of God "2. By 1605, the treatise "On the meaning and success of knowledge, divine and human" belongs.

Bacon's rise as a court politician came after the death of Elizabeth, at the court of James I Stuart. Since 1606, Bacon has held a number of high government positions. Of these, such as the full-time Queen's Counsel, the Supreme Queen's Counsel.

In England, the time is coming for the absolutist rule of James I: in 1614 he dissolved Parliament and ruled alone until 1621. During these years, feudalism intensifies and changes in domestic and foreign policy take place, which leads the country to a revolution in twenty-five years. In need of devoted advisers, the king brought Bacon especially close to him.

In 1616 Bacon became a member of the Privy Council, and in 1617 Lord Privy Seal. In 1618, Bacon - Lord, High Chancellor and Peer of England, Baron Verulamsky, from 1621 - Viscount of St. Albany.

When in 1621 the king convenes parliament, an investigation into the corruption of officials begins. Bacon, appearing before the court, admitted his guilt. The peers condemned Bacon to imprisonment in the Tower, but the king overturned the decision of the court.

Retired from politics, Bacon devoted himself to scientific and philosophical research. In 1620, Bacon published his main philosophical work, The New Organon, conceived as the second part of the Great Restoration of the Sciences.

In 1623, the extensive work "On the Dignity of the Multiplication of the Sciences" - the first part of the "Great Restoration of the Sciences" - was published. Bacon tries the pen in the fashion genre in the 17th century. philosophical utopia - writes "New Atlantis". Among other works of the outstanding English thinker: "Thoughts and Observations", "On the Wisdom of the Ancients", "On the Sky", "On Causes and Beginnings", "History of Winds", "History of Life and Death", "History of Henry VII", etc. .

During his last experience with the preservation of chicken meat by freezing it, Bacon caught a bad cold. Francis Bacon died on April 9, 1626 at the home of the Count of Arondel in Gayget.

2. Newperiod in the development of philosophy

The 17th century opens a new period in the development of philosophy called the philosophy of modern times. The historical feature of this period was the strengthening and formation of new social relations - bourgeois, this gives rise to changes not only in the economy and politics, but also in the minds of people. A person becomes, on the one hand, becomes freer spiritually from the influence of a religious worldview, and on the other, less spiritual, he is striving not for otherworldly bliss, not for truth, as such, but for the benefit, transformation and increase in the comfort of earthly life. It is no coincidence that science becomes the dominant factor in consciousness in this era, not in its medieval understanding, as bookish knowledge, but in its modern meaning - first of all, experimental and mathematical natural science; only its truths are considered reliable, and it is on the path of connection with science that philosophy seeks its renewal. If in the Middle Ages philosophy acted in alliance with theology, and in the Renaissance - with art, then in modern times it mainly relies on science. Therefore, epistemological problems come to the fore in philosophy itself and two major areas are formed, in the confrontation of which the history of modern philosophy takes place - these are empiricism (reliance on experience) and rationalism (reliance on reason).

The founder of empiricism was the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626). He was a talented scientist, an outstanding public and political figure, a descendant of a noble aristocratic family. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was the Lord Privy Seal. Francis Bacon graduated from the University of Cambridge. In 1584 he was elected to Parliament. From 1617, he, Baron of Verloam and Viscount of St. Albans, became Lord Privy Seal under King James I, inheriting this position from his father; then Lord Chancellor. In 1961, Bacon was brought to trial on charges of bribery on a false denunciation, convicted and removed from all positions. Soon he was pardoned by the king, but did not return to public service, devoting himself entirely to scientific and literary work. The legends surrounding the name of Bacon, like any great man, have preserved the story that he even bought an island on purpose in order to create a new society on it in accordance with his ideas about the ideal state, set forth later in the unfinished book "New Atlantis" , however, this attempt failed (as did Plato's attempt to fulfill his dream in Syracuse), crashing against the greed and imperfection of the people he chose as allies.

Already in his youth, F. Bacon was hatching a grandiose plan for the "Great Restoration of the Sciences", the implementation of which he aspired all his life. The first part of this work is completely new, different from the Aristotelian classification of sciences traditional for that time. It was proposed in Bacon's work "On the Prosperity of Knowledge" (1605), but it was fully developed in the main work of the philosopher "The New Organon" (1620), which in its very title indicates the opposition of the author's position to the dogmatized Aristotle, who was then revered in Europe for infallible authority. Bacon is credited with giving a philosophical status to experimental natural science and "returning" philosophy from heaven to earth.

Empirical method and the theory of induction

A brief description of the 17th century in the ideas of science can be considered on the example of physics, based on the reasoning of Roger Cotes, who was a contemporary of Bacon.

Roger Cotes was an English mathematician and philosopher, the famous editor and publisher of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica.

In his publishing preface to The Elements, Kots talks about three approaches to physics that differ from each other precisely in philosophical and methodological respects:

The scholastic followers of Aristotle and the Peripatetics attributed special latent qualities to various kinds of objects and argued that the interactions of individual bodies occur due to the peculiarities of their nature. What these features consist of, and how the actions of the bodies are carried out, they did not teach.

As Kots concludes: “Therefore, in essence, they did not teach anything. Thus, everything came down to the name of individual objects, and not to the very essence of the matter, and one can say that they created a philosophical language, and not philosophy itself”2

Supporters of Cartesian physics believed that the matter of the Universe is homogeneous and all the difference observed in bodies comes from some of the simplest and understandable properties of the particles that make up these bodies. Their reasoning would be completely correct if they attributed to these primary particles only those properties with which nature actually endowed them. Also, at the level of hypotheses, they arbitrarily invented different kinds and the size of the particles, their location, connection, movement.

On their account, Richard Coates remarks: "Those who borrow the foundations of their reasoning from hypotheses, even if everything further were developed by them in the most exact way on the basis of the laws of mechanics, would create a very elegant and beautiful fable, but still only a fable."

Adherents of experimental philosophy or the experimental method of investigating the phenomena of nature also strive to deduce the causes of everything that exists from possibly simple beginnings, but they take nothing as a beginning, except what is confirmed by occurring phenomena. Two methods are used - analytical and synthetic. They derive the forces of nature and the simplest laws of their action analytically from some selected phenomena and then synthetically obtain the laws of other phenomena.

Bearing in mind Isaac Newton, Kots writes: "This is the best way to study nature and is adopted primarily over our other most famous author"

The first bricks in the foundation of this methodology were laid by Francis Bacon, about whom they said: "the real founder of English materialism and all modern experimental science ... "2 His merit is that he clearly emphasized that scientific knowledge stems from experience, not just from direct sensory data, namely from purposefully organized experience, experiment. Science cannot be built simply on the immediate data of feeling. There are many things that elude the senses, the evidence of the senses is subjective, "always correlated with a person, and not with the world." 3 And if the senses can refuse us their help or deceive us, then it cannot be said that "the sense is the measure of things." Bacon proposes compensation for the inconsistency of feeling, and the correction of his mistakes results in a properly organized and specially adapted experience or experiment for this or that research. "... since the nature of things reveals itself better in a state of artificial restraint than in natural freedom."

At the same time, experiments are important to science that are set up with the aim of discovering new properties, phenomena, their causes, axioms, which provide material for a subsequent more complete and deeper theoretical understanding. Francis distinguishes between two kinds of experiences - "light-bearing" and "fruitful". This is the distinction between an experiment focused solely on obtaining a new scientific result, from an experiment pursuing one or another direct practical benefit. He affirms that the discovery and establishment of correct theoretical concepts does not give us superficial knowledge, but deep knowledge, entails numerous series of the most unexpected applications, and warns against premature pursuit of immediate new practical results.

When forming theoretical axioms and concepts and natural phenomena, one must rely on the facts of experience, one cannot rely on abstract justifications. The most important thing is to develop the correct method for analyzing and generalizing experimental data, which will make it possible to penetrate step by step into the essence of the phenomena under study. That method should be induction, but not one that concludes from a mere enumeration of a limited number of favorable facts. Bacon sets himself the task of formulating the principle of scientific induction, "which would produce division and selection in experience and, by appropriate exceptions and rejections, would draw the necessary conclusions."

Since in the case of induction there is an incomplete experience, Francis Bacon understands the need to develop effective means that would allow for a more complete analysis of the information contained in the premises of the inductive inference.

Bacon rejected the probabilistic approach to induction. "The essence of his inductive method, his tables of Discovery - Presence, Absence and Degrees. A sufficient number of various cases of some "simple property" (for example, density, warmth, gravity, color, etc.) is collected, the nature or "form" of which is sought Then we take a set of cases, as similar as possible to the previous ones, but already those in which this property is absent.Then - a set of cases in which there is a change in the intensity of the property we are interested in. Comparison of all these sets allows us to exclude factors that are not concomitant with the property being constantly investigated, i.e. not present where there is a given property, or present where it is absent, or not intensifying when it is strengthened. By such a rejection, in the end, a certain remainder is obtained, invariably accompanying the property of interest to us, - its "form ".2

The main techniques of this method are analogy and exclusion, since by analogy empirical data are selected for the tables of the Discovery. It lies at the foundation of inductive generalization, which is achieved through selection, rejection of a number of circumstances from a multitude of initial possibilities. This process of analysis can be facilitated by rare situations in which the nature under investigation, for one reason or another, is more evident than in others. Bacon lists and sets out twenty-seven such pre-eminent instances of prerogative instances. These include those cases: when the investigated property exists in objects that are completely different from each other in all other respects; or, conversely, this property is absent in objects that are completely similar to each other;

This property is observed in the most obvious, maximum degree; an obvious alternativeness of two or more causal explanations is revealed.

Features of the interpretation of Francis Bacon's induction, linking the logical part of Bacon's teaching with his analytical methodology and philosophical metaphysics are as follows: Firstly, the means of induction are intended to reveal the forms of "simple properties", or "nature", into which all concrete physical bodies are decomposed. For example, not gold, water or air are subject to inductive research, but their properties or qualities such as density, heaviness, malleability, color, warmth, volatility. Such an analytical approach in the theory of knowledge and the methodology of science would subsequently turn into a strong tradition of English philosophical empiricism.

Secondly, the task of Bacon's induction is to reveal the "form" - in Peripatetic terminology, the "formal" cause, and not the "acting" or "material", which are private and transient and therefore cannot be permanently and essentially connected with one or another simple properties. .one

"Metaphysics" is called upon to investigate forms "encompassing the unity of nature in dissimilar matters"2, while physics deals with more particular material and active causes that are transient, external carriers of these forms. "If we are talking about the cause of the whiteness of snow or foam, then the correct definition would be that this is a fine mixture of air and water. But this is still far from being a form of whiteness, since air mixed with glass powder or crystal powder, for sure also creates whiteness, no worse than when combined with water. It is only an efficient cause, which is nothing but a carrier of form. But if the same question is investigated by metaphysics, then the answer will be approximately the following: two transparent bodies, uniformly mixed with each other in the smallest parts in a simple order, create a white color"3. The metaphysics of Francis Bacon does not coincide with the "mother of all sciences" - the first philosophy, but is part of the science of nature itself, a higher, more abstract and deep section of physics. As Bacon writes in a letter to Baranzan: "Don't worry about metaphysics, there will be no metaphysics after the acquisition of true physics, beyond which there is nothing but the divine."4

It can be concluded that for Bacon, induction is a method of developing fundamental theoretical concepts and axioms of natural science or natural philosophy.

Bacon's reasoning about "form" in the "New Organon": "A thing differs from form in no other way than a phenomenon differs from essence, or external from internal, or a thing, but in relation to a person from a thing in relation to the world."1 The concept of "form" "Goes back to Aristotle, in whose teaching she, along with matter, the active cause and purpose, is one of the four principles of being.

In the texts of Bacon's works, there are many different names for "form": essentia, resipsissima, natura naturans, fons emanationis, definitio vera, differentia vera, lex actus puri. , the immanent cause or nature of its properties, as their internal source, then as the true determination or distinction of a thing, finally, as the law of the pure action of matter. All of these are quite consistent with each other, if one does not ignore their connection with scholastic usage and their origin from the doctrine And at the same time, the Baconian understanding of form, at least in two points, differs essentially from that prevailing in idealistic scholasticism: firstly, by the recognition of the materiality of the forms themselves, and secondly, by the conviction that they are fully knowable.3 Form, according to Bacon, it is the material thing itself, but taken in its truly objective essence, and not in the way it is or appears to be a subject who. In this regard, he wrote that matter, rather than forms, should be the subject of our attention - its states and action, changes in states and the law of action or movement, "for forms are inventions of the human mind, unless these laws of action are called forms" . And this understanding allowed Bacon to set the task of investigating forms empirically, by the inductive method.

Francis Bacon distinguishes two kinds of forms - the forms of concrete things, or substances, which are something complex, consisting of many forms of simple natures, since any concrete thing is a combination of simple natures; and forms of simple properties, or natures. Forms of simple properties are forms of the first class. They are eternal and motionless, but it is they who are of different quality, individualizing the nature of things, their intrinsic essences. Karl Marx wrote: “In Bacon, as its first creator, materialism still harbors in itself in a naive form the germs of all-round development. Matter smiles with its poetic and sensual brilliance to all man”5

There are a finite number of simple forms, and by their quantity and combination they determine the whole variety of existing things. For example, gold. It has a yellow color, such and such weight, malleability and strength, has a certain fluidity in the liquid state, dissolves and is released in such and such reactions. Let us explore the forms of these and other simple properties of gold. Having learned the methods for obtaining yellowness, heaviness, malleability, strength, fluidity, solubility, etc., in a degree and measure specific to this metal, it is possible to organize their combination in any body and thus obtain gold. Bacon has a clear awareness that any practice can be successful if it is guided by the correct theory, and the associated orientation towards a rational and methodologically verified understanding of natural phenomena. “Even at the dawn of modern natural science, Bacon seems to have foreseen that his task would be not only the knowledge of nature, but also the search for new possibilities not realized by nature itself.”1

In the postulate of a limited number of forms, one can see an outline of a very important principle of inductive research, in one form or another assumed in subsequent theories of induction. Essentially adjoining Bacon in this paragraph, I. Newton will formulate his "Rules of inference in physics":

"Rule I. Must not accept other causes in nature than those that are true and sufficient to explain the phenomena.

On this subject, philosophers say that nature does nothing in vain, and it would be in vain to do to the many what can be done to the lesser. Nature is simple and does not luxuriate in superfluous causes of things.

Rule II. Therefore, as far as possible, we must attribute the same causes of the same kind to the manifestations of nature.

So, for example, the breath of people and animals, the falling of stones in Europe and Africa, the light of the kitchen hearth and the Sun, the reflection of light on the Earth and on the planets.

Francis Bacon's theory of induction is closely connected with his philosophical ontology, methodology, with the doctrine of simple natures, or properties, and their forms, with the concept of different types of causal dependence. Logic, understood as an interpreted system, that is, as a system with a given semantics, always has some kind of ontological prerequisites and, in essence, is built as a logical model of some ontological structure.

Bacon himself does not yet draw such a definite and general conclusion. But he notes that logic must proceed "not only from the nature of the mind, but also from the nature of things." He writes about the need to "modify the method of discovery in relation to the quality and state of the subject that we are investigating." deductive and inductive logics. Therefore, under the condition of a sufficiently specific and delicate analysis, there will be not one, but many systems of inductive logics, each of which acts as a specific logical model of a certain kind of ontological structure.2

Induction, as a method of productive discovery, must work according to strictly defined rules, which must not depend in their application on differences in the individual abilities of researchers, "almost equalizing talents and leaving little to their superiority."3

For example, "a compass and a ruler, when drawing circles and straight lines, level the sharpness of the eye and the hardness of the hand. In another place, regulating the knowledge of the "ladder" of strictly consistent inductive generalizations, Bacon even resorts to this image:" Reason should not be given wings, but rather lead and heaviness, so that they hold back every jump and flight "4. "This is a very accurate metaphorical expression of one of the basic methodological principles of scientific knowledge. A certain regulation always distinguishes scientific knowledge from ordinary knowledge, which, as a rule, is not sufficiently clear and precise and is not subject to methodologically verified self-control. Such regulation is manifested, for example, in the fact that any experimental result in science is accepted as a fact if it is repeatable, if it is the same in the hands of all researchers, which in turn implies standardization of the conditions for its implementation; it also manifests itself in the fact that the explanation must satisfy the conditions of fundamental verifiability and have predictive power, and all reasoning is based on the laws and norms of logic. The very idea of ​​considering induction as a systematic procedure of investigation and an attempt to formulate its exact rules, of course, cannot be underestimated.

The scheme proposed by Bacon does not guarantee the reliability and certainty of the result obtained, since it does not give confidence that the elimination process has been completed. "A real corrective to his methodology would be a more attentive attitude to the hypothetical element in the implementation of inductive generalization, which always takes place here at least in fixing the initial possibilities for culling." Not only Archimedes, but also Stevin, Galileo and Descartes, contemporaries of Bacon, who laid the foundations of a new natural science, followed the method, consisting in the fact that certain postulates or hypotheses are put forward, from which consequences are then derived that are verified by experience. Experience that is not preceded by some theoretical idea and its consequences simply does not exist in natural science. In this regard, Bacon's view of the purpose and role of mathematics is such that as physics increases its achievements and discovers new laws, it will need mathematics more and more. But he considered mathematics mainly as a way of completing the design of natural philosophy, and not as one of the sources of its concepts and principles, not as a creative principle and apparatus in the discovery of the laws of nature. He was inclined to evaluate the method of mathematical modeling of natural processes even as an Idol of the Human Race. Meanwhile, mathematical schemes, in essence, are abbreviated records of a generalized physical experiment that model the processes under study with an accuracy that makes it possible to predict the results of future experiments. The ratio of experiment and mathematics for various branches of science is different and depends on the development of both experimental capabilities and the available mathematical technology.

Bringing philosophical ontology in line with this method of new natural science fell to the lot of Bacon's student and the "systematist" of his materialism, Thomas Hobbes. And if Bacon in natural science already neglects the final, goal-oriented causes, which, according to him, like a virgin who has dedicated herself to God, are barren and cannot give birth to anything, then Hobbes also refuses Bacon's "forms", attaching importance only to material active causes. one

The program of research and construction of a picture of nature according to the "form - essence" scheme gives way to the research program, but to the "causality" scheme. The general character of the worldview changes accordingly. "In its further development, materialism becomes one-sided ... - wrote K. Marx. - Sensuality loses its bright colors and turns into an abstract sensibility of a geometer. Physical movement is sacrificed to mechanical or mathematical movement; geometry is proclaimed the main science."1 So ideologically it was prepared the main scientific work of the century - "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" by Isaac Newton, brilliantly embodying these two seemingly polar approaches - rigorous experiment and mathematical deduction.

“I do not claim, however, that nothing can be added to this,” Bacon wrote. “On the contrary, considering the mind not only in its own abilities, but also in its connection with things, it should be recognized that the art of discovery can make progress along with successes the discoveries themselves.

3. Scientific works of F. Bacon

All scientific works of Bacon can be grouped into two groups. One group of works is devoted to the problems of the development of science and the analysis of scientific knowledge. This includes treatises related to his project of the "Great Restoration of the Sciences", which, for reasons unknown to us, was not completed. Only the second part of the project, devoted to the development of the inductive method, was completed, published in 1620 under the title "New Organon". Another group included such works as Moral, Economic and Political Essays, New Atlantis, History of Henry VII, On Principles and Principles (unfinished study) and others.

Bacon considered the main task of philosophy to be the construction of a new method of cognition, and the goal of science was to bring benefits to mankind. “Science should be developed,” according to Bacon, “neither for the sake of one’s spirit, nor for the sake of certain scientific disputes, nor for the sake of neglecting the rest, nor for the sake of self-interest and glory, nor in order to achieve power, nor for some other low intentions, but for the sake of life itself having benefit and success from it. The practical orientation of knowledge was expressed by Bacon in the well-known aphorism: "Knowledge is power."

Bacon's main work on the methodology of scientific knowledge was the New Organon. It gives a presentation of the "new logic" as the main way to gain new knowledge and build a new science. As the main method, Bacon proposes induction, which is based on experience and experiment, as well as a certain methodology for analyzing and generalizing sensory data. bacon philosopher knowledge

F. Bacon raised an important question - about the method of scientific knowledge. In this regard, he put forward the doctrine of the so-called "idols" (ghosts, prejudices, false images), which prevent the receipt of reliable knowledge. Idols personify the inconsistency of the process of cognition, its complexity and intricacies. They are either inherent in the mind by its nature, or connected with external premises. These ghosts constantly accompany the course of cognition, give rise to false ideas and ideas, and prevent one from penetrating "deep and distant nature." In his teaching, F. Bacon singled out the following varieties of idols (ghosts).

Firstly, these are "ghosts of the family." They are due to the very nature of man, the specifics of his senses and mind, the limitations of their capabilities. Feelings either distort the object, or are completely powerless to give real information about it. They continue an interested (non-biased) attitude towards objects. The mind also has flaws, and, like a distorted mirror, it often reproduces reality in a distorted form. So, he tends to allow the exaggeration of certain aspects, or to underestimate these aspects. Due to these circumstances, the data of the sense organs and judgments of the mind require mandatory experimental verification.

Secondly, there are "ghosts of the cave", which also significantly weaken and distort the "light of nature". Bacon understood them as the individual characteristics of human psychology and physiology, associated with the character, originality of the spiritual world and other aspects of the personality. The emotional sphere has a particularly active influence on the course of cognition. Feelings and emotions, wills and passions, literally "sprinkle" the mind, and sometimes even "stain" and "spoil" it.

Thirdly, F. Bacon singled out "ghosts of the square" ("market"). They arise in the course of communication between people and are primarily due to the influence of incorrect words and false concepts on the course of cognition. These idols "rape" the mind, leading to confusion and endless disputes. Concepts dressed in verbal form can not only confuse the person who knows, but even lead him away from the right path. That is why it is necessary to clarify the true meaning of words and concepts, the things hidden behind them and the connections of the surrounding world.

Fourthly, there are "idols of the theatre". They represent the blind and fanatical belief in authority, which is often the case in philosophy itself. An uncritical attitude to judgments and theories can have an inhibitory effect on the flow of scientific knowledge, and sometimes even fetter it. Bacon also referred "theatrical" (inauthentic) theories and teachings to this kind of ghosts.

All idols have an individual or social origin, they are powerful and stubborn. However, obtaining true knowledge is still possible, and the main tool for this is the correct method of knowledge. The doctrine of the method became, in fact, the main one in the work of Bacon.

Method ("path") is a set of procedures and techniques used to obtain reliable knowledge. The philosopher identifies specific ways through which cognitive activity can take place. It:

- "the way of the spider";

- "the path of the ant";

- "the way of the bee".

"Way of the Spider" - obtaining knowledge from "pure reason", that is, in a rationalistic way. This path ignores or significantly downplays the role of concrete facts and practical experience. Rationalists are divorced from reality, dogmatic and, according to Bacon, "weave a web of thoughts from their minds."

The "Way of the Ant" is a way of gaining knowledge when only experience is taken into account, that is, dogmatic empiricism (the exact opposite of rationalism divorced from life). This method is also imperfect. "Pure empiricists" focus on practical experience, the collection of disparate facts and evidence. Thus, they receive an external picture of knowledge, they see problems "outside", "from outside", but they cannot understand the inner essence of the things and phenomena being studied, see the problem from the inside.

"The way of the bee", according to Bacon, is an ideal way of knowing. Using it, the philosopher-researcher takes all the virtues of the "path of the spider" and "the path of the ant" and at the same time frees himself from their shortcomings. Following the "path of the bee", it is necessary to collect the entire set of facts, summarize them (look at the problem "outside") and, using the capabilities of the mind, look "inside" the problem, understand its essence. Thus, the best way of knowledge, according to Bacon, is empiricism based on induction (collection and generalization of facts, accumulation of experience) using rationalistic methods of understanding the inner essence of things and phenomena by reason.

F. Bacon believed that in scientific knowledge the experimental-inductive method should be the main one, which involves the movement of knowledge from simple (abstract) definitions and concepts to more complex and detailed (concrete). Such a method is nothing but the interpretation of facts obtained through experience. Cognition involves the observation of facts, their systematization and generalization, verification by experience (experiment). "From the particular to the general" - this is how, according to the philosopher, a scientific search should take place. The choice of method is the most important condition for gaining true knowledge. Bacon emphasized that "... the lame one walking on the road is ahead of the one who runs without the road," and "the more dexterous and faster the runner on the impassable road, the greater will be his wanderings." The Baconian method is nothing more than the analysis of empirical (given to the researcher in experience) facts with the help of reason.

In its content, F. Bacon's induction is a movement towards truth through continuous generalization and ascent from the individual to the general, the discovery of laws. It (induction) requires comprehension of a variety of facts: both confirming the assumption and denying it. During the experiment, there is an accumulation of primary empirical material, primarily the identification of the properties of objects (color, weight, density, temperature, etc.). Analysis allows you to make a mental dissection and anatomy of objects, to identify opposite properties and characteristics in them. As a result, a conclusion should be obtained that fixes the presence of common properties in the whole variety of objects under study. This conclusion can become the basis for hypotheses, i.e. assumptions about the causes and trends in the development of the subject. Induction as a method of experimental knowledge leads eventually to the formulation of axioms, i.e. provisions that no longer need further evidence. Bacon emphasized that the art of discovering truth is constantly being improved as these truths are discovered.

F. Bacon is considered the founder of English philosophical materialism and experimental science of modern times. He emphasized that the main source of reliable knowledge about the surrounding world is living sensory experience, human practice. "There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses," - this is the main thesis of the supporters of empiricism as a trend in epistemology. However, the data of the sense organs, for all their significance, still need to be obligatory experimentally); verification and justification. That is why induction is the method of cognition corresponding to experimental natural science. In his book The New Organon, F. Bacon revealed in great detail the procedure for applying this method in natural science using the example of such a physical phenomenon as heat. The substantiation of the method of induction was a significant step forward towards overcoming the traditions of fruitless medieval scholasticism and the formation of scientific thinking. The main significance of the scientist's work was in the formation of the methodology of experimental scientific knowledge. Subsequently, it began to develop very rapidly in connection with the emergence of an industrial civilization in Europe.

An impartial mind, freed from all sorts of prejudices, open and listening to experience - such is the starting position of Baconian philosophy. To master the truth of things, it remains to resort to the correct method of working with experience, which guarantees our success. Bacon's experience is only the first stage of cognition, its second stage is the mind, which produces a logical processing of the data of sensory experience. A true scientist, - says Bacon, - is like a bee, which "extracts material from garden and wild flowers, but arranges and changes it according to its ability."

Therefore, the main step in the reform of science proposed by Bacon was to be the improvement of methods of generalization, the creation of a new concept of induction. It is the development of the experimental-inductive method or inductive logic that is the greatest merit of F. Bacon. He devoted his main work, The New Organon, to this problem, named in contrast to the old Organon of Aristotle. Bacon opposes not so much the genuine study of Aristotle as against medieval scholasticism, which interprets this doctrine.

Bacon's experimental-inductive method consisted in the gradual formation of new concepts by interpreting facts and natural phenomena on the basis of their observation, analysis, comparison, and further experimentation. Only with the help of such a method, according to Bacon, can new truths be discovered. Without rejecting deduction, Bacon defined the difference and features of these two methods of cognition as follows: “Two ways exist and can exist for finding and discovering truth. One soars from sensations and particulars to the most general axioms and, going from these foundations and their unshakable truth, discusses and discovers the middle axioms. This path is still used today. The other path deduces axioms from sensations and particulars, ascending continuously and gradually, until, finally, it leads to the most general axioms. This is the true path, but not tested. "

Although the problem of induction was raised earlier by previous philosophers, it is only in Bacon that it acquires a dominant significance and acts as a primary means of knowing nature. In contrast to induction through a simple enumeration, common at that time, he brings to the fore the true, in his words, induction, which gives new conclusions, obtained not so much on the basis of observation of confirming facts, but as a result of the study of phenomena that contradict the position being proved. A single case can refute an ill-considered generalization. Neglect of the so-called authorities, according to Bacon, is the main cause of errors, superstitions, prejudices.

Bacon called the collection of facts and their systematization the initial stage of induction. Bacon put forward the idea of ​​compiling 3 tables of research: tables of presence, absence and intermediate steps. If (to take Bacon's favorite example) someone wants to find a formula for heat, then he collects in the first table various cases of heat, trying to weed out everything that is not connected with heat. In the second table he collects together cases which are similar to those in the first, but do not have heat. For example, the first table could include rays from the sun that create heat, and the second table could include rays from the moon or stars that do not create heat. On this basis, all those things that are present when heat is present can be distinguished. Finally, in the third table, cases are collected in which heat is present to varying degrees.

The next step in induction, according to Bacon, should be the analysis of the data obtained. Based on a comparison of these three tables, we can find out the cause that underlies heat, namely, according to Bacon, movement. This manifests the so-called "principle of studying the general properties of phenomena."

Bacon's inductive method also includes the conduct of an experiment. At the same time, it is important to vary the experiment, repeat it, move it from one area to another, reverse the circumstances and link them with others. Bacon distinguishes between two types of experiment: fruitful and luminous. The first type is those experiences that bring direct benefit to a person, the second - those whose purpose is to know the deep connections of nature, the laws of phenomena, the properties of things. Bacon considered the second type of experiments more valuable, because without their results it is impossible to carry out fruitful experiments.

Complementing induction with a whole series of techniques, Bacon sought to turn it into the art of questioning nature, leading to true success on the path of knowledge. As the father of empiricism, Bacon was by no means inclined to underestimate the importance of reason. The power of the mind just manifests itself in the ability to organize observation and experiment in such a way that allows you to hear the voice of nature itself and interpret what it says in the right way.

The value of reason lies in its art of extracting truth from the experience in which it is contained. Reason as such does not contain the truths of being and, being detached from experience, is incapable of discovering them. Experience is thus fundamental. Reason can be defined through experience (for example, as the art of extracting truth from experience), but experience does not need to be pointed to reason in its definition and explanation, and therefore can be considered as an independent and independent instance from reason.

Therefore, Bacon illustrates his position by comparing the activity of bees, collecting nectar from many flowers and processing it into honey, with the activity of a spider, weaving a web from itself (one-sided rationalism) and ants, collecting various objects in one heap (one-sided empiricism).

Bacon had the intention of writing a great work, The Great Restoration of the Sciences, which would set out the foundations of understanding, but managed to complete only two parts of the work On the Dignity and Multiplication of the Sciences and the aforementioned New Organon, which outlines and substantiates the principles of a new for this time inductive logic.

So, knowledge was considered by Bacon as a source of people's power. According to the philosopher, people should be masters and masters of nature. B. Russell wrote about Bacon: “He is usually regarded as the author of the saying “knowledge is power”, and although he may have had predecessors ... he emphasized the importance of this position in a new way. The whole basis of his philosophy was practically aimed at enable mankind to master the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.

Bacon believed that, according to its purpose, all knowledge should be the knowledge of the natural causal relationships of phenomena, and not through fantasizing about "reasonable purposes of providence" or about "supernatural miracles." In a word, true knowledge is the knowledge of causes, and therefore our mind leads out of darkness and reveals much if it aspires to find the causes on the right and direct path.

4. The Influence of Bacon's Teachings on Natural Science XVI- XVII centuries.

The influence of Bacon's teachings on contemporary natural science and the subsequent development of philosophy is enormous. His analytical scientific method of studying natural phenomena, the development of the concept of the need to study it through experience laid the foundation for a new science - experimental natural science, and also played a positive role in the achievements of natural science in the 16th-17th centuries.

Bacon's logical method gave impetus to the development of inductive logic. Bacon's classification of sciences was positively received in the history of sciences and even made the basis for the division of sciences by the French encyclopedists. Bacon's methodology largely anticipated the development of inductive research methods in subsequent centuries, up to the 19th century.

At the end of his life, Bacon wrote a utopian book, The New Atlantis, in which he depicted an ideal state where all the productive forces of society were transformed with the help of science and technology. Bacon describes amazing scientific and technological achievements that transform human life: rooms for the miraculous healing of diseases and maintaining health, boats for swimming under water, various visual devices, sound transmission over distances, ways to improve the breed of animals, and much more. Some of the described technical innovations were realized in practice, others remained in the realm of fantasy, but all of them testify to Bacon's indomitable faith in the power of the human mind and the possibility of knowing nature in order to improve human life.

Conclusion

Thus, the philosophy of F. Bacon is the first hymn to scientific knowledge, the formation of the foundations of modern value priorities, the birth of the "new European thinking", which remains dominant in our time.

Getting acquainted with the works and life of Francis Bacon, you understand that he was a great figure, with his head surrounded by the political affairs of his time, a politician to the marrow, who deeply shows the state. Bacon's works are among those treasures of history, the acquaintance and study of which still brings great benefits to modern society.

The work of Bacon had a strong influence on the general spiritual atmosphere in which the science and philosophy of the 17th century were formed.

List of sources used

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook. Second edition, revised and enlarged. - M.: Prospekt, 1997.

2. Bacon F. Works. Tt. 1-2. - M.: Thought, 1977-1978

3. Grinenko G.V. History of Philosophy: Textbook. - M.: Yurayt-Izdat, 2003.

4. Kanke V.A. Fundamentals of Philosophy: A Textbook for Students of Secondary Specialized Educational Institutions. - M.: Logos, 2002

5. Lega V.P. History of Western Philosophy. - M.: Ed. Orthodox St. Tikhon Institute, 1997

6. Radugin A.A. Philosophy: a course of lectures. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Center, 1999

7. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. - M.: Anthology of thought, 2000.

8. Skirbeck G., Gillie N. History of Philosophy: Textbook. - M.: VLADOS, 2003

9. Smirnov I.N., Titov V.F. Philosophy: Textbook for students of higher educational institutions. Second edition, corrected and enlarged. - M.: Gardariki, 1998

10. Subbotin A.L. Francis Bacon. - M.: Nauka, 1974

11. Introduction to philosophy: Textbook for universities. At 2 h. Part 2. / Frolov I.T., Arab-Ogly E.A., Arefieva G.S. etc. - M.: Politizdat, 1989.

12. History of political and legal doctrines. Textbook for high schools. Ed. 2nd, stereotype. Under total ed. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Law, Professor V.S. Nersesyants. - M.: Publishing group NORMA - INFRA-M, 1998.

13. History of the reign of King Henry VII. - M.: Politizdat, 1990

14. History of philosophy in brief. Per. from Czech. I.I. Bogut. - M.: Thought, 1995

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All scientific works of Bacon can be grouped into two groups. One group of works is devoted to the problems of the development of science and the analysis of scientific knowledge. This includes treatises related to his project of the "Great Restoration of the Sciences", which, for reasons unknown to us, was not completed. Only the second part of the project, devoted to the development of the inductive method, was completed, published in 1620 under the title "New Organon". Another group included such works as Moral, Economic and Political Essays, New Atlantis, History of Henry VII, On Principles and Principles (unfinished study) and others.

Bacon considered the main task of philosophy to be the construction of a new method of cognition, and the goal of science was to bring benefits to mankind. “Science should be developed,” according to Bacon, “neither for the sake of one’s spirit, nor for the sake of certain scientific disputes, nor for the sake of neglecting the rest, nor for the sake of self-interest and glory, nor in order to achieve power, nor for some other low intentions, but for the sake of life itself having benefit and success from it. The practical orientation of knowledge was expressed by Bacon in the well-known aphorism: "Knowledge is power."

Bacon's main work on the methodology of scientific knowledge was the New Organon. It gives a presentation of the "new logic" as the main way to gain new knowledge and build a new science. As the main method, Bacon proposes induction, which is based on experience and experiment, as well as a certain methodology for analyzing and generalizing sensory data. bacon philosopher knowledge

F. Bacon raised an important question - about the method of scientific knowledge. In this regard, he put forward the doctrine of the so-called "idols" (ghosts, prejudices, false images), which prevent the receipt of reliable knowledge. Idols personify the inconsistency of the process of cognition, its complexity and intricacies. They are either inherent in the mind by its nature, or connected with external premises. These ghosts constantly accompany the course of cognition, give rise to false ideas and ideas, and prevent one from penetrating "deep and distant nature." In his teaching, F. Bacon singled out the following varieties of idols (ghosts).

Firstly, these are "ghosts of the family." They are due to the very nature of man, the specifics of his senses and mind, the limitations of their capabilities. Feelings either distort the object, or are completely powerless to give real information about it. They continue an interested (non-biased) attitude towards objects. The mind also has flaws, and, like a distorted mirror, it often reproduces reality in a distorted form. So, he tends to allow the exaggeration of certain aspects, or to underestimate these aspects. Due to these circumstances, the data of the sense organs and judgments of the mind require mandatory experimental verification.

Secondly, there are "ghosts of the cave", which also significantly weaken and distort the "light of nature". Bacon understood them as the individual characteristics of human psychology and physiology, associated with the character, originality of the spiritual world and other aspects of the personality. The emotional sphere has a particularly active influence on the course of cognition. Feelings and emotions, wills and passions, literally "sprinkle" the mind, and sometimes even "stain" and "spoil" it.

Thirdly, F. Bacon singled out "ghosts of the square" ("market"). They arise in the course of communication between people and are primarily due to the influence of incorrect words and false concepts on the course of cognition. These idols "rape" the mind, leading to confusion and endless disputes. Concepts dressed in verbal form can not only confuse the person who knows, but even lead him away from the right path. That is why it is necessary to clarify the true meaning of words and concepts, the things hidden behind them and the connections of the surrounding world.

Fourthly, there are "idols of the theatre". They represent the blind and fanatical belief in authority, which is often the case in philosophy itself. An uncritical attitude to judgments and theories can have an inhibitory effect on the flow of scientific knowledge, and sometimes even fetter it. Bacon also referred "theatrical" (inauthentic) theories and teachings to this kind of ghosts.

All idols have an individual or social origin, they are powerful and stubborn. However, obtaining true knowledge is still possible, and the main tool for this is the correct method of knowledge. The doctrine of the method became, in fact, the main one in the work of Bacon.

Method ("path") is a set of procedures and techniques used to obtain reliable knowledge. The philosopher identifies specific ways through which cognitive activity can take place. It:

• - "the way of the spider";
• - "the path of the ant";
• - "the way of the bee".

"Way of the Spider" - obtaining knowledge from "pure reason", that is, in a rationalistic way. This path ignores or significantly downplays the role of concrete facts and practical experience. Rationalists are divorced from reality, dogmatic and, according to Bacon, "weave a web of thoughts from their minds."

The "Way of the Ant" is a way of gaining knowledge when only experience is taken into account, that is, dogmatic empiricism (the exact opposite of rationalism divorced from life). This method is also imperfect. "Pure empiricists" focus on practical experience, the collection of disparate facts and evidence. Thus, they receive an external picture of knowledge, they see problems "outside", "from outside", but they cannot understand the inner essence of the things and phenomena being studied, see the problem from the inside.

"The way of the bee", according to Bacon, is an ideal way of knowing. Using it, the philosopher-researcher takes all the virtues of the "path of the spider" and "the path of the ant" and at the same time frees himself from their shortcomings. Following the "path of the bee", it is necessary to collect the entire set of facts, summarize them (look at the problem "outside") and, using the capabilities of the mind, look "inside" the problem, understand its essence. Thus, the best way of knowledge, according to Bacon, is empiricism based on induction (collection and generalization of facts, accumulation of experience) using rationalistic methods of understanding the inner essence of things and phenomena by reason.

F. Bacon believed that in scientific knowledge the experimental-inductive method should be the main one, which involves the movement of knowledge from simple (abstract) definitions and concepts to more complex and detailed (concrete). Such a method is nothing but the interpretation of facts obtained through experience. Cognition involves the observation of facts, their systematization and generalization, verification by experience (experiment). "From the particular to the general" - this is how, according to the philosopher, a scientific search should take place. The choice of method is the most important condition for gaining true knowledge. Bacon emphasized that "... the lame one walking on the road is ahead of the one who runs without the road," and "the more dexterous and faster the runner on the impassable road, the greater will be his wanderings." The Baconian method is nothing more than the analysis of empirical (given to the researcher in experience) facts with the help of reason.

In its content, F. Bacon's induction is a movement towards truth through continuous generalization and ascent from the individual to the general, the discovery of laws. It (induction) requires comprehension of a variety of facts: both confirming the assumption and denying it. During the experiment, there is an accumulation of primary empirical material, primarily the identification of the properties of objects (color, weight, density, temperature, etc.). Analysis allows you to make a mental dissection and anatomy of objects, to identify opposite properties and characteristics in them. As a result, a conclusion should be obtained that fixes the presence of common properties in the whole variety of objects under study. This conclusion can become the basis for hypotheses, i.e. assumptions about the causes and trends in the development of the subject. Induction as a method of experimental knowledge leads eventually to the formulation of axioms, i.e. provisions that no longer need further evidence. Bacon emphasized that the art of discovering truth is constantly being improved as these truths are discovered.

F. Bacon is considered the founder of English philosophical materialism and experimental science of modern times. He emphasized that the main source of reliable knowledge about the surrounding world is living sensory experience, human practice. "There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses," - this is the main thesis of the supporters of empiricism as a trend in epistemology. However, the data of the sense organs, for all their significance, still need to be obligatory experimentally); verification and justification. That is why induction is the method of cognition corresponding to experimental natural science. In his book The New Organon, F. Bacon revealed in great detail the procedure for applying this method in natural science using the example of such a physical phenomenon as heat. The substantiation of the method of induction was a significant step forward towards overcoming the traditions of fruitless medieval scholasticism and the formation of scientific thinking. The main significance of the scientist's work was in the formation of the methodology of experimental scientific knowledge. Subsequently, it began to develop very rapidly in connection with the emergence of an industrial civilization in Europe.

An impartial mind, freed from all sorts of prejudices, open and listening to experience - such is the starting position of Baconian philosophy. To master the truth of things, it remains to resort to the correct method of working with experience, which guarantees our success. Bacon's experience is only the first stage of cognition, its second stage is the mind, which produces a logical processing of the data of sensory experience. A true scientist, - says Bacon, - is like a bee, which "extracts material from garden and wild flowers, but arranges and changes it according to its ability."

Therefore, the main step in the reform of science proposed by Bacon was to be the improvement of methods of generalization, the creation of a new concept of induction. It is the development of the experimental-inductive method or inductive logic that is the greatest merit of F. Bacon. He devoted his main work, The New Organon, to this problem, named in contrast to the old Organon of Aristotle. Bacon opposes not so much the genuine study of Aristotle as against medieval scholasticism, which interprets this doctrine.

Bacon's experimental-inductive method consisted in the gradual formation of new concepts by interpreting facts and natural phenomena on the basis of their observation, analysis, comparison, and further experimentation. Only with the help of such a method, according to Bacon, can new truths be discovered. Without rejecting deduction, Bacon defined the difference and features of these two methods of cognition as follows: “Two ways exist and can exist for finding and discovering truth. One soars from sensations and particulars to the most general axioms and, going from these foundations and their unshakable truth, discusses and discovers the middle axioms. This path is still used today. The other path deduces axioms from sensations and particulars, ascending continuously and gradually, until, finally, it leads to the most general axioms. This is the true path, but not tested. "

Although the problem of induction was raised earlier by previous philosophers, it is only in Bacon that it acquires a dominant significance and acts as a primary means of knowing nature. In contrast to induction through a simple enumeration, common at that time, he brings to the fore the true, in his words, induction, which gives new conclusions, obtained not so much on the basis of observation of confirming facts, but as a result of the study of phenomena that contradict the position being proved. A single case can refute an ill-considered generalization. Neglect of the so-called authorities, according to Bacon, is the main cause of errors, superstitions, prejudices.

Bacon called the collection of facts and their systematization the initial stage of induction. Bacon put forward the idea of ​​compiling 3 tables of research: tables of presence, absence and intermediate steps. If (to take Bacon's favorite example) someone wants to find a formula for heat, then he collects in the first table various cases of heat, trying to weed out everything that is not connected with heat. In the second table he collects together cases which are similar to those in the first, but do not have heat. For example, the first table could include rays from the sun that create heat, and the second table could include rays from the moon or stars that do not create heat. On this basis, all those things that are present when heat is present can be distinguished. Finally, in the third table, cases are collected in which heat is present to varying degrees.

The next step in induction, according to Bacon, should be the analysis of the data obtained. Based on a comparison of these three tables, we can find out the cause that underlies heat, namely, according to Bacon, movement. This manifests the so-called "principle of studying the general properties of phenomena."

Bacon's inductive method also includes the conduct of an experiment. At the same time, it is important to vary the experiment, repeat it, move it from one area to another, reverse the circumstances and link them with others. Bacon distinguishes between two types of experiment: fruitful and luminous. The first type is those experiences that bring direct benefit to a person, the second - those whose purpose is to know the deep connections of nature, the laws of phenomena, the properties of things. Bacon considered the second type of experiments more valuable, because without their results it is impossible to carry out fruitful experiments.

Complementing induction with a whole series of techniques, Bacon sought to turn it into the art of questioning nature, leading to true success on the path of knowledge. As the father of empiricism, Bacon was by no means inclined to underestimate the importance of reason. The power of the mind just manifests itself in the ability to organize observation and experiment in such a way that allows you to hear the voice of nature itself and interpret what it says in the right way.

The value of reason lies in its art of extracting truth from the experience in which it is contained. Reason as such does not contain the truths of being and, being detached from experience, is incapable of discovering them. Experience is thus fundamental. Reason can be defined through experience (for example, as the art of extracting truth from experience), but experience does not need to be pointed to reason in its definition and explanation, and therefore can be considered as an independent and independent instance from reason.

Therefore, Bacon illustrates his position by comparing the activity of bees, collecting nectar from many flowers and processing it into honey, with the activity of a spider, weaving a web from itself (one-sided rationalism) and ants, collecting various objects in one heap (one-sided empiricism).

Bacon had the intention of writing a great work, The Great Restoration of the Sciences, which would set out the foundations of understanding, but managed to complete only two parts of the work On the Dignity and Multiplication of the Sciences and the aforementioned New Organon, which outlines and substantiates the principles of a new for this time inductive logic.

So, knowledge was considered by Bacon as a source of people's power. According to the philosopher, people should be masters and masters of nature. B. Russell wrote about Bacon: “He is usually regarded as the author of the saying “knowledge is power”, and although he may have had predecessors ... he emphasized the importance of this position in a new way. The whole basis of his philosophy was practically aimed at enable mankind to master the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.

Bacon believed that, according to its purpose, all knowledge should be the knowledge of the natural causal relationships of phenomena, and not through fantasizing about "reasonable purposes of providence" or about "supernatural miracles." In a word, true knowledge is the knowledge of causes, and therefore our mind leads out of darkness and reveals much if it aspires to find the causes on the right and direct path.

The influence of Bacon's teachings on contemporary natural science and the subsequent development of philosophy is enormous. His analytical scientific method of studying natural phenomena, the development of the concept of the need to study it through experience laid the foundation for a new science - experimental natural science, and also played a positive role in the achievements of natural science in the 16th-17th centuries.

Bacon's logical method gave impetus to the development of inductive logic. Bacon's classification of sciences was positively received in the history of sciences and even made the basis for the division of sciences by the French encyclopedists. Bacon's methodology largely anticipated the development of inductive research methods in subsequent centuries, up to the 19th century.

At the end of his life, Bacon wrote a utopian book, The New Atlantis, in which he depicted an ideal state where all the productive forces of society were transformed with the help of science and technology. Bacon describes amazing scientific and technological achievements that transform human life: rooms for the miraculous healing of diseases and maintaining health, boats for swimming under water, various visual devices, sound transmission over distances, ways to improve the breed of animals, and much more. Some of the described technical innovations were realized in practice, others remained in the realm of fantasy, but all of them testify to Bacon's indomitable faith in the power of the human mind and the possibility of knowing nature in order to improve human life.

Introduction

Chapter 1 Bacon as a representative of materialism

§ 1. Great restoration of sciences

§ 2. Classification of the system of sciences, experimental-inductive method and the role of philosophy

Chapter 2 Ontology of Francis Bacon

§ 1. "New organon"

§ 2. The doctrine of the method and its influence on the philosophy of the XVII century.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered the founder of experimental science in modern times. He was the first philosopher to set himself the task of creating a scientific method. In his philosophy, for the first time, the main principles characterizing the philosophy of modern times were formulated.
Bacon came from a noble family and throughout his life was engaged in social and political activities: he was a lawyer, a member of the House of Commons, Lord Chancellor of England. Shortly before the end of his life, society condemned him, accusing him of bribery in the conduct of court cases. He was sentenced to a large fine (£40,000), stripped of his parliamentary powers, and dismissed from court. He died in 1626, catching a cold while stuffing a chicken with snow to prove that the cold kept the meat from spoiling, and thereby demonstrate the power of the experimental scientific method he was developing. From the very beginning of his creative activity, Bacon spoke out against the scholastic philosophy that dominated at that time and put forward the doctrine of "natural" philosophy, based on empirical knowledge. Bacon's views were formed on the basis of the achievements of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance and included a naturalistic worldview with the basics of an analytical approach to the phenomena under study and empiricism. He proposed an extensive program for the restructuring of the intellectual world, sharply criticizing the scholastic concepts of his predecessor and contemporary philosophy.
The main objective of my work is a detailed consideration of aspects of the philosophy of Francis Bacon.

To accomplish the task, I needed to study the literature on this issue, and, if necessary, use data from the Internet.

Chapter 1 Bacon as a representative of materialism

§ 1 Great restoration of sciences

Bacon Francis is the founder of English materialism and the methodology of experimental science.

Bacon's philosophy combined empiricism with theology, a naturalistic worldview with the principles of the analytical method.

Bacon opposed the doctrine of "natural" philosophy to reasoning about God, which is based on experimental consciousness (empiricism - empeiria- an experience). As a materialistic empiricist, Bacon (along with Hobbes, Locke, Condillac) argued that sensory experience reflects only objectively existing things in cognition (as opposed to subjective-idealistic empiricism, which recognized subjective experience as the only reality)

In contrast to rationalism (Descartes), in empiricism rational-cognitive activity is reduced to various combinations of the material that is given in experience, and is interpreted as adding nothing to the content of knowledge.

Here the empiricists encountered insoluble difficulties in isolating the outgoing components of experience and reconstructing on this basis all kinds and forms of consciousness. In order to explain the actually occurring cognitive process, empiricists are forced to go beyond sensory data and consider them along with the characteristics of consciousness (such as memory, the active activity of the mind) and logical operations (inductive generalization), turn to the categories of logic and mathematics to describe experimental data as means building theoretical knowledge. The attempts of the empiricists to justify induction on a purely empirical basis and to present logic and mathematics as mere inductive generalizations of sense experience have failed miserably.

Bacon believed that the sciences since the time of the ancient Greeks had made little progress along the path of an unbiased experimental study of nature. A different situation is observed in the mechanical arts: "they, as if having taken some kind of life-giving breath, grow and improve every day ...". But even people who "set sail on the waves of experience" think little about the initial concepts and principles. So, Bacon calls on his contemporaries and descendants to pay special attention to the development of the sciences and to do this for the benefit of life and practice, precisely for the "profit and dignity of man."

Bacon takes a stand against current prejudices about science in order to give scientific research a high status. It is with Bacon that a sharp change in orientation in European culture begins. From a suspicious and idle pastime in the eyes of many people, science is gradually becoming the most important, prestigious area of ​​human culture. In this regard, many scientists and philosophers of modern times follow in the footsteps of Bacon: in place of scholastic polyknowledge, divorced from technical practice and from the knowledge of nature, they put a science that is still closely connected with philosophy, but at the same time based on special experiments and experiments.

“The activities and efforts that contribute to the development of science,” writes Bacon in the Dedication to the King to the “Second Book of the “Great Restoration of the Sciences”, “concern three objects: scientific institutions, books and the scientists themselves” - In all these areas, Bacon has great merit. He drew up a detailed and well-thought-out plan for changing the education system (including measures to finance it, approve statutes and regulations). He wrote to one of the first politicians and philosophers in Europe: “in general, it should be firmly remembered that significant progress in revealing the deep secrets of nature is hardly possible if funds for experiments are not provided ...”. We need a revision of teaching programs and university traditions, cooperation of European universities.

However, Bacon saw his main contribution as a philosopher to the theory and practice of science in bringing a renewed philosophical and methodological foundation to science. He conceived of the sciences as linked into a single system, each part of which, in turn, must be subtly differentiated.

§ 2 Classification of the system of sciences, experimental-inductive method and the role of philosophy

“The most correct division of human knowledge is that which comes from the three abilities of the rational soul, concentrating knowledge in itself.” History corresponds to memory, poetry to imagination, philosophy to reason. F. Bacon divides history conformed to memory into natural and civil, and classifies each of them even more specifically. (Thus, civil history is divided into church history, the history of sciences, and civil history proper). Poetry - correlated with the imagination - is divided into epic, dramatic, parabolic. Philosophy, which is understood very broadly and is divided into many types and subspecies of knowledge, is divided and classified most fractionally. But even before that, Bacon separates it from the "theology of divine inspiration"; divisions of the latter he leaves to theologians. As for philosophy, it is primarily divided into two large blocks: the doctrine of nature, or natural philosophy, and the first philosophy (the doctrine of the general axioms of science, of transcendence). The first block, or the philosophical doctrine of nature, includes theoretical doctrines (physics with its applications, metaphysics) and practical ones (mechanics, magic with their applications). "Great application to theoretical and practical natural philosophy" becomes mathematics (in its turn differentiated).

Bacon thinks broadly and on a large scale, both philosophy in general and the philosophy of man in particular. Thus, the philosophy of man includes the doctrine of the body (which includes medicine, cosmetics, athletics, the "art of pleasure", that is, fine arts and music) and the doctrine of the soul. The doctrine of the soul has many subsections. It must be borne in mind that we are talking here precisely about the philosophical doctrine of the soul, already dissociated from purely theological reasoning. And therefore it is not surprising that it includes such sections as logic (understood also not quite traditionally - not only as a theory of judgment, but also as a theory of discovery, memorization, communication), ethics and "civil science" (which in turn is divided into three teachings - about mutual treatment, about business relations, about government or the state). The complete classification of sciences by F. Bacon does not disregard any of the areas of knowledge that existed then or even possible in the future. True, it was only a project, a sketch, and it was not and could not be realized by Bacon himself to any full extent. In the Baconian classification of sciences, which Hegel did not fail to pay attention to, along with physics or medicine, theology and magic figured. But the same Hegel noted with gratitude: “This sketch, undoubtedly, should have caused a sensation among contemporaries. It is very important to have before your eyes an ordered picture of the whole, which has not been thought of before.

According to the style of his philosophizing, F. Bacon is a great systematizer and classifier, which should be understood not in a purely formal sense. All his work as a philosopher and writer is built in such a way that any chapter of the book serves as a part of a pre-compiled and strictly implemented classificatory scheme.

Bacon's experimental-inductive method consisted in the gradual formation of new concepts through the interpretation of facts and natural phenomena. Only with the help of such a method, according to Bacon, it is possible to discover new truths, and not to stagnate. Without rejecting deduction, Bacon defined the difference and features of these two methods of cognition as follows: “Two ways exist and can exist for finding and discovering truth. One soars from sensations and particulars to the most general axioms and, going from these foundations and their unshakable truth, discusses and discovers the middle axioms. This way is used now. The other way deduces the axioms from sensations and particulars, ascending continuously and gradually until, finally, it leads to the most general axioms. This is the true path, but not tested. " Although the problem of induction was raised earlier by previous philosophers, it is only in Bacon that it acquires a dominant significance and acts as a primary means of knowing nature. In contrast to induction through a simple enumeration, common at that time, he brings to the fore the true, in his words, induction, which gives new conclusions obtained not only on the basis of observation of confirming facts, but as a result of studying phenomena that contradict the position being proved. A single case can refute an ill-considered generalization. Neglect of the so-called authorities according to Bacon is the main cause of errors, superstitions, prejudices.

In Bacon's inductive method, the necessary steps include the collection of facts and their systematization. Bacon put forward the idea of ​​compiling 3 tables of research: tables of presence, absence, and intermediate steps. If - to take Bacon's favorite example - someone wants to find a formula for heat, then he collects in the first table various cases of heat, trying to weed out everything that is not connected with heat. In the second table he collects together cases which are similar to those in the first, but do not have heat. For example, the first table may include rays from the sun that create heat, while the second table may include rays from the moon or stars that do not create heat. On this basis, all those things that are present when heat is present can be distinguished; finally, in the third table, cases are collected in which heat is present in varying degrees. Using these three tables together, we can, according to Bacon, find out the cause that underlies heat, namely, according to Bacon, motion. This manifests the principle of studying the general properties of phenomena, their analysis. Bacon's inductive method also includes conducting an experiment. At the same time, it is important to vary the experiment, repeat it, move it from one area to another, reverse the circumstances and link them with others. After that, you can proceed to the decisive experiment.

Bacon put forward the experimental generalization of facts as the core of his method, but he was not a defender of a one-sided understanding of it. Bacon's empirical method is distinguished by the fact that it relies to the maximum extent on reason in the analysis of facts. Bacon compared his method to the art of the bee, which, extracting nectar from flowers, processes it into honey with its own skill. He condemned the crude empiricists who, like an ant, collect everything that comes their way (meaning the alchemists), as well as those speculative dogmatists who, like a spider, weave a web of knowledge out of themselves (meaning the scholastics).

Chapter 2 Francis Bacon's Ontology

§ 1 "New Organon"

F. Bacon's book "The New Organon" begins with "Aphorisms on the Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man." The section opens with the wonderful words of F. Bacon: “A man, a servant and interpreter of nature, does and understands as much as he has comprehended in the order of nature by deed or reflection, and beyond this he does not know and cannot” 1. The renewal of science is its "updating to the last foundations" (aphorism XXXI). First of all, it presupposes, according to Bacon, the refutation and, as far as possible, the elimination of ghosts and false concepts "which have already captured the human mind and are deeply entrenched in it" (aphorism XXXVIII). Bacon is of the opinion that the old way of thinking, inherited from the Middle Ages and ideologically sanctified by the Church and Scholasticism, is in deep crisis. The old knowledge (and the methods of research corresponding to it) are imperfect along all lines: “in the practical part, it is fruitless, full of unresolved questions; in its growth is slow and sluggish; strives to show perfection as a whole, but poorly completed in its parts; in terms of content, it pleases the crowd and is doubtful for the authors themselves, and therefore seeks protection and ostentatious power in all sorts of tricks.

According to Bacon, the path of human knowledge is difficult. The building of nature, in which one has to pave the way for a knowing person, is like a labyrinth, the roads here are varied and deceptive, the “loops and knots of nature” are complex. You have to learn in the "wrong light of feelings." Yes, and those who lead people along this path, themselves go astray and increase the number of wanderers and wanderers. That is why it is necessary to carefully study the principles of knowledge. “We must guide our steps with a guiding thread and, according to a certain rule, secure the entire path, starting already from the first perceptions of the senses.” Therefore, Bacon breaks the great work of restoring the sciences into two parts: the first, “destructive”, should help a person “to carry out a complete rejection of ordinary theories and concepts and then reapply a purified and impartial mind to particulars.” Supporting later this great work of Bacon, Descartes rightly notes that the positive successes he has achieved in science are the consequences and conclusions of five or six major difficulties he has overcome. Impartial reason is the starting point at which the doctrine of method can and must be applied, the positive, actually creative part of the restoration of the sciences. Suggested here

Bacon's structure of the doctrine of knowledge is essentially borrowed, as we shall see, by Descartes and Spinoza.

So, the first task is destructive, the task of "cleansing", freeing the mind, preparing it for subsequent positive creative work. Bacon seeks to solve this problem in his famous doctrine of "ghosts" or "idols."

The doctrine of ghosts

“Our doctrine of the purification of the mind so that it is capable of truth consists in three reproofs: the rebuke of philosophies, the rebuke of proofs and the rebuke of the innate human mind” 1Bacon writes. Accordingly, Bacon distinguishes four kinds of "ghosts" - obstacles that prevent genuine, true knowledge:

) ghosts of the genus, having a basis "in the very nature of man, in the tribe or in the very genus of people";

) ghosts of the market, arising from the mutual communication of people, and, finally,

) the ghosts of the theatre, “which have entered the souls of people from various dogmas of philosophy, as well as from the perverse laws of evidence.”

The ghosts of the genus, according to Bacon, are inherent in human knowledge, which tends to "mix its nature with the nature of things", because of which things appear "in a twisted and disfigured form" 1. What are these ghosts? The human mind is inclined, according to Bacon, to attribute to things more order and uniformity than it can really find in nature. The human mind, further, adheres to the once accepted provisions, seeks to artificially fit new facts and data to these of its own or generally accepted beliefs. A person usually succumbs to those arguments and arguments that strike his imagination more strongly. The impotence of the mind is also manifested in the fact that people, not properly dwelling on the study of particular causes, rush to universal explanations, without finding out one, they cling to the knowledge of another. “The human mind is greedy. He can neither stop nor remain at rest, but rushes further and further. 2. The mind, by its very nature, tends to cut nature into pieces and think of the fluid as permanent. The human mind is closely connected with the world of feelings. And from here follows, according to Bacon, a huge "corruption" of knowledge.

The ghosts of the cave arise because the properties of the soul of different people are very diverse; some love particular sciences and studies, others are more capable of general reasoning; "Some minds are inclined to revere antiquity, others are seized with love for the perception of the new." These differences, arising both from individual inclinations and from upbringing and habits, significantly influence knowledge, clouding and distorting it. So, in themselves, attitudes to the new or the old deviate a person from knowing the truth, because the latter, as Bacon is convinced, “must be sought not in the luck of any time, which is impermanent, but in the light of the experience of nature, which is eternal.”

The ghosts of the market are born from the misuse of words and names: words can turn their power against the mind. Then, Bacon emphasizes, sciences and philosophy become "sophistical and inactive", "loud and solemn" disputes degenerate into verbal skirmishes. And the evil that results from the misuse of words is of two kinds. Firstly, names are given to non-existent things and about these fictions, fictions, whole theories are created, just as empty and false. In this regard, Bacon mentions words and concepts generated by superstition or arising in line with scholastic philosophy. Fiction becomes reality for a while, and this is their paralyzing effect on knowledge. However, it is easier to discard this kind of ghosts: “continuous refutation and obsolescence of theories is enough to eradicate them” 1- But there are, secondly, more complex ghosts. These are those that spring from "bad and ignorant abstractions." Here Bacon has in mind the indeterminacy of the meaning that is associated with a whole range of words and scientific concepts put into wide practical and scientific use.

The difference between the ghosts of the theater is that they "are not innate and do not penetrate the mind secretly, but are openly transmitted and perceived from fictitious theories and perverse laws of evidence" 2. Here Bacon considers and classifies those types of philosophical thinking that he considers fundamentally erroneous and harmful, preventing the formation of an unprejudiced mind. We are talking about three forms of erroneous thinking: sophistry, empiricism and superstition. Bacon enumerates the negative consequences for science and practice caused by dogmatic, fanatical, adherence to metaphysical reasoning or, conversely, to pure empiricism. The root of the unsatisfactoriness of contemplative-metaphysical philosophy is a misunderstanding or conscious neglect of the fact that "all the usefulness and suitability of practice lies in the discovery of average truths." The harm of extreme empiricism lies in the fact that because of daily experiences that give rise to ignorant judgments, the imagination of people is "corrupted". The theology of superstitions is recognized as the chief of all philosophical evils. The harm of theology and superstition is obvious: "the human mind is no less susceptible to the impressions of fiction than to the impressions of ordinary concepts." Thus, philosophical ghosts are considered by Bacon not so much from the point of view of their substantive falsity, but in the light of their negative influence on the formation of human cognitive abilities and aspirations.

The list of ghosts is complete. Bacon expresses ardent faith and conviction that "they must be refuted and cast aside by a firm and solemn decision, and the mind must be completely freed and cleansed of them" 1. The general meaning of the doctrine of ghosts is determined by this social educational function of it. The enumeration of ghosts, Bacon admits, does not yet guarantee progress towards the truth. Such a guarantee can only be a carefully developed doctrine of the method. "But the enumeration of ghosts also serves a great deal": its purpose is "to prepare the minds of the people for the perception of what follows" 2, clean, smooth and even out the area of ​​the mind.

We are talking about creating new social and at the same time individual attitudes, new principles of approach to the study and development of science, about providing those socio-psychological conditions that are by no means self-sufficient, but are necessary and desirable as initial and preliminary. And in this sense, the significance of Bacon's theory of ghosts goes far beyond the concrete historical tasks that gave rise to it. It also contains general social content. Bacon rightly enumerates here the dangers that threaten science in times of mass worship of authorities, in times of special dogmatization of knowledge and principles. Bacon is also right in that personal, individual interests, inclinations, the whole system of habits and aspirations have a definite and often negative influence on the activity of a given individual in science, and to some extent on the development of knowledge in general.

§ 4 The doctrine of the method and its influence on the philosophy of the XVII century.

Philosophy of the 17th century saw its main task in the decomposition, fragmentation of nature, isolation, separate study of specific bodies and processes, as well as in a separate description and analysis of the external appearance of corporeal, material nature, on the one hand, and its law, on the other. “It is necessary,” writes Bacon, “to effect the decomposition and division of nature, of course, not by fire, but by reason, which is, as it were, divine fire” 1.

Bacon opposes those people whose mind is “captivated and entangled by habit, the seeming integrity of things and ordinary opinions”, who does not see an urgent need, including in the name of contemplating the whole, the one, to dismember the integral picture of nature, the integral image of the thing.

The second requirement of the method, concretizing the specifics of the dismemberment itself, says: dismemberment is not an end in itself, but a means for isolating the simplest, easiest Bacon characterizes this requirement in two of its senses. First, a single, integral thing must be decomposed into "simple natures", and then derived from them. Secondly, simple, “concrete bodies as they are revealed in nature in its usual course” should become the subject of consideration. “... These studies,” Bacon further explains, “are related to nature merged - or collected in one construction, and here they are considered, as it were, private and special skills of nature, and not the basic and general laws that form forms” 2.

The third requirement of the method is as follows. The search for simple beginnings, simple natures, explains Bacon, does not mean at all that we are talking about specific material phenomena or simply about private bodies, about their specific particles. The task and goal of science is much more complicated: one should “discover the form of a given nature, or true difference, or producing nature, or source of origin (for these are the words we have that are closest to the designation of this goal) 1". We are talking, in fact, about the discovery of the law and its sections (this content is what Bacon puts into the concept of "form"), moreover, such a law that could serve as "the basis of both knowledge and activity." But if the simple is at the same time a law, an essence, a “form” (and only therefore is it absolute, that is, the basis for understanding and explaining the relative), then it does not coincide with the real division of an object: the simple is the result of a special mental, intellectual “dissection” .

Highly appreciating the need for a real empirical study, owning various methods of decomposition and revealing the heterogeneity of the whole, recognizing that "the separation and decomposition of bodies is necessary." But how to prevent the danger emanating from an avalanche of empirical experiments? How to build a bridge from empirical to philosophical, theoretical content?

The fourth requirement of the method answers these questions. “First of all,” writes Bacon, “we must prepare a sufficient and good Natural and Experienced History, which is the basis of the matter” 2. In other words, we must carefully summarize, list everything that nature says to the mind, "left to itself, driven by itself." But already in the course of enumerating, providing the mind with examples, it is necessary to follow certain methodological rules and principles that will make empirical research gradually turn into a derivation of forms, into a true interpretation of nature.

bacon materialism organon inductive

Conclusion

In my work, I reflected the main provisions of the philosophy of Francis Bacon.

Main points of Bacon's philosophy:

on the issue of the relationship of faith and reason, he adhered to the idea of ​​dual

He singled out 4 types of "idols of knowledge": idols of the clan, idols of the cave, idols of the market, idols of the theater.

They proposed a classification of sciences. He based this classification on cognitive abilities human: memory, reason and imagination. History is based on memory, art is based on imagination, and reason generates theoretical sciences. He refers to the theoretical sciences the first Philosophy, natural theology, philosophy of nature, anthropology. Anthropology includes: philosophy of man and civil philosophy; Human philosophy consists of psychology, logic, ethics.

Bacon's main idea: God planned to transform the world, turning it into the kingdom of man over nature.

Thus, Francis Bacon was the first to break with the scholastic past and Aristotelianism as the main brake on the further development of theory and practice with Protestant determination and recklessness on church authorities. “Truth is the daughter of Time, not Authority,” proclaimed Baron Verulamsky (such was the noble title of the philosopher). He was the first who clearly outlined the main path of science, along which it is moving to this day: reliance on reliable facts, on experience and experiment.

Bibliography

1 Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook. Second edition, revised and enlarged. - M.: Prospekt, 1997. - 568 p.

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Encyclopedic YouTube

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✪ Philosophy of F. Bacon.

✪ BACON: SOLVING SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS

✪ FRANCIS BACON: SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES online lecture No. 19

✪ ATOMS AND MOLECULES. History of atomism. Francis Bacon and Pierre Gassendi. ALLATRA SCIENCE. #13

✪ Philosophy of modern times: Bacon and Descartes

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Biography

early years

Francis Bacon was born on January 22, 1561, two years after the coronation of Elizabeth I, in the Yorkhouse mansion on the central London Strand, in the family of Sir Nicholas Bacon and Anne (Anna) Bacon (ur. Cook), daughter of the English humanist Anthony Cook, educator of the king England and Ireland Edward VI. Anne Bacon was Nicholas' second wife and, in addition to Francis, they had an eldest son, Anthony. Francis and Anthony had three more paternal brothers - Edward, Nathaniel and Nicholas, children from their father's first wife - Jane Fearnley (d. 1552).

Ann was a well-educated person: she spoke ancient Greek and Latin, as well as French and Italian; being a zealous puritan, she personally knew the leading Calvinist theologians of England and continental Europe, corresponded with them, translated various theological literature into English; she, Sir Nicholas, and their relatives (the Bacons, Cecilies, Russells, Cavendishes, Seymours, and Herberts) belonged to the "new nobility" devoted to the Tudors, as opposed to the old, recalcitrant tribal aristocracy. Anne constantly urged her children to strict observance of religious observances, along with careful study of theological doctrines. One of Anne's sisters, Mildred, was married to the first minister of the Elizabethan government, Lord Treasurer William Cecil, Baron Burghley, to whom Francis Bacon subsequently often turned for help in his career advancement, and after the death of the baron, to his second son Robert.

Very little is known about Francis' childhood years; he did not differ in good health, and probably studied mainly at home, the atmosphere of which was filled with talk about the intrigues of "big politics". The combination of personal affairs with state problems from childhood distinguished Francis' way of life, which allowed A. I. Herzen to notice: “Bacon sharpened his mind with public affairs, he learned to think in public” .

In April 1573 he entered Holy Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied there for three years, with his elder brother Anthony; their personal teacher was Dr. John Whitgift, the future Archbishop of Canterbury. The courtiers drew attention to Francis's abilities and good manners, as well as Elizabeth I herself, who often talked with him, and jokingly called him the young Lord Keeper. After leaving college, the future philosopher took with him a dislike for the philosophy of Aristotle, which, in his opinion, was good for abstract disputes, but not for the benefit of human life.

On June 27, 1576, Francis and Anthony entered the society of teachers (lat. societate magistrorum) at Grace Inn. A few months later, thanks to the patronage of his father, who thus wanted to prepare his son for the service of the state, Francis was sent abroad, as part of the retinue of Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador to France, where, in addition to Paris, Francis was in Blois, Tours and Poitiers.

France then experienced very turbulent times, which gave rich impressions to the young diplomatic worker, and food for thought. Some believe that the result was Bacon's Notes on the State of Christendom. Notes on the state of Christendom) , which is usually included in his writings, but the publisher of Bacon's works, James Spedding, has shown that there is little reason to attribute this work to Bacon, but it is more likely that "Notes ..." belong to one of his brother Anthony's correspondents.

Start of professional activity

The sudden death of his father in February 1579 forced Bacon to return home to England. Sir Nicholas set aside a significant amount of money to buy him real estate, but did not have time to fulfill his intention; as a result, Francis got only a fifth of the amount set aside. This was not enough for him, and he began to borrow money. Subsequently, debts always hung over him. Also, it was necessary to find a job, and Bacon chose the law, settling in 1579 in his residence at Grace's Inn. Thus, Bacon began his professional life as a lawyer, but later became widely known as a philosopher-lawyer and advocate of the scientific revolution.

In 1580, Francis took the first step in his career by petitioning, through his uncle William Cecil, for a position at court. The queen favorably accepted this request, but did not grant it; the details of this case remain unknown. And subsequently, Her Majesty was disposed towards the philosopher, consulted with him on legal and other issues. public service, graciously talked, but this did not result in either material incentives or career advancement. After working after that for two years at Grace Inn, in 1582 Bacon received the position of junior barrister (eng. outer barrister).

Parliamentarian

In the course of the debate, Bacon entered into opposition, first with the House of Lords, and then, in fact, with the court itself. What he specifically proposed is not known, but he planned to distribute the payment of subsidies over six years, with a note that the last subsidy was extraordinary. Robert Burley, as a representative of the House of Lords, asked for an explanation from the philosopher, to which he stated that he had the right to speak according to his conscience. Nevertheless, the request of the lords was granted: the payment was approved equal to three subsidies and the accompanying six fifteenths in four years, and the philosopher fell out of favor with the court and the queen: he had to make excuses.

The Parliament of 1597-1598 was assembled in connection with the difficult social and economic situation in England; Bacon initiated two bills: on the increase of arable land and on the growth of the rural population, which provided for the conversion of arable land, turned into pastures as a result of the policy of enclosures, again into arable land. This was in line with the aspirations of the English government, which wanted to keep a strong peasantry in the country's villages - yeomanry, which is a significant source of replenishment of the royal treasury through the payment of taxes. At the same time, with the preservation and even growth of the rural population, the intensity of social conflicts should have decreased. After heated debate and numerous consultations with the Lords, a completely revised bill was adopted.

The first parliament, convened under James I, acted for almost 7 years: from March 19, 1604 to February 9, 1611. Francis Bacon was named among the names of likely candidates for the post of speaker by the representatives of the House of Commons. However, according to tradition, the royal court nominated the candidate for this post, and this time he insisted on his candidacy, and the landowner Sir Edward Philips became the Speaker of the House of Commons.

After Bacon became Attorney General in 1613, Parliamentarians announced that in the future the Attorney General should not sit in the House of Commons, but an exception was made for Bacon.

Further career and scientific activity

In the 1580s, Bacon wrote a philosophical essay that has not survived to our time “The Greatest Creation of Time” (lat. Temporis Partus Maximus), in which he outlined a plan for a general reform of science and described a new, inductive method of knowledge.

In 1586, Bacon became the foreman of the legal corporation - Bencher (eng. Bencher), not least thanks to the assistance of his uncle, William Cecil, Baron Burghley. This was followed by the appointment of his extraordinary Queen's Counsel (although this position was not provided with a salary), and, in 1589, Bacon was enlisted as a candidate for the registrar of the Star Chamber. This place could bring him 1,600 pounds a year, but he could take it only after 20 years; at present, the only benefit was that it was now easier to borrow. Dissatisfied with his promotion, Bacon makes repeated requests to his Cecil relatives; in one of the letters to the Lord Treasurer, Baron Burghley, there is a hint that his career is being secretly hindered: “And if Your Grace thinks now or someday that I am seeking and seeking a position in which you yourself are interested, then you can call me the most dishonorable person.” .

In his younger years, Francis was fond of the theater: for example, in 1588, with his participation, the students of Grace Inn wrote and staged the play-mask "The Troubles of King Arthur" - the first adaptation for the stage of the English theater of the story of the legendary King of the Britons Arthur. In 1594, at Christmas at Gray's Inn, another mask performance was staged with the participation of Bacon, as one of the authors - "Acts of the Grayites" (lat. Gesta Grayorum). In this performance, Bacon expressed the ideas of “conquering the creations of nature”, discovering and exploring its secrets, which were later developed in his philosophical works and literary and journalistic essays, for example, in New Atlantis.

To brighten up the failures, the Earl of Essex gives the philosopher a plot of land in Twickenham Park, which Bacon subsequently sold for 1,800 pounds sterling.

In 1597, the philosopher publishes his first literary work, “Experiments and Instructions, Moral and Political,” which were repeatedly reprinted in subsequent years. In a dedication addressed to his brother, the author feared that the "Experiments" "they will be like ... new halfpenny coins, which, although the silver in them is full, are very small". The 1597 edition contained 10 short essays; subsequently, in new editions of publications, the author increased their number and diversified the subject matter, while emphasizing political aspects more noticeably - for example, the 1612 edition already contained 38 essays, and the 1625 edition contained 58. In total, during the life of the author, three editions of "Experiments" were published. The book was liked by the public, was translated into Latin, French and Italian; the author's fame spread, but his financial situation remained difficult. It got to the point that he was detained on the street and taken to the police on the complaint of one of the goldsmiths because of a debt of 300 pounds sterling.

On February 8, 1601, the Earl of Essex, along with his associates, opposed royal authority by taking to the streets of London and heading for the City. Having received no support from the townspeople, he and other leaders of this speech were arrested that night, imprisoned and then brought to trial. Francis Bacon was also included in the composition of the judges. The count was found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. After the sentence is carried out, Bacon writes a Declaration of the Criminal Deeds of Robert, "Former Earl of Essex". Before its official publication, the original version has undergone significant editing and changes made by the queen and her advisers. It is definitely not known how this document was accepted by contemporaries, the author of which accuses his friend, but, wanting to justify himself, the philosopher wrote an “Apology” in 1604 describing his actions and relations with the count.

Reign of James I

In March 1603, Elizabeth I died; James I ascended the throne, he is also King James VI of Scotland, who, from the moment he ascended to London, became the ruler of two independent states at once. On July 23rd, 1603, Bacon received a knighthood; the same title was awarded to almost 300 other persons. As a result, in two months under James I, as many people were knighted as in the last ten years of the reign of Elizabeth I.

In the interval before the opening of the first parliament under James I, the philosopher was engaged in literary work, trying to interest the king with his political and scientific ideas. He presented two treatises to him: on the Anglo-Scottish union and on measures to appease the church. Francis Bacon was also a supporter of the union in the parliamentary debates of 1606-1607.

In 1604, Bacon received the post of full-time Queen's Counsel, and on June 25, 1607, he took the post of Solicitor General with an income of about a thousand pounds a year. At that time, Bacon was not yet an adviser to James I, and his cousin Robert Cecil had access to the "ear" of the sovereign. In 1608, as a solicitor, Bacon decided on the "automatic" mutual naturalization of Scots and Englishmen born after the coronation of James I: both became citizens of both states (England and Scotland) and acquired the corresponding rights. Bacon's argument was recognized by 10 judges out of 12.

In 1605, Bacon published his first significant philosophical work: "Two Books on the Restoration of the Sciences", which was an outline of the work "On the Dignity and Multiplication of the Sciences" published 18 years later. In the preface to "Two Books ..." the author did not skimp on abundant praise of James I, which was common for the then literary practice of the humanists. In 1609, the work “On the Wisdom of the Ancients” was published, which is a collection of miniatures.

In 1608, the philosopher becomes the registrar of the Star Chamber, taking the place for which he was appointed as a candidate under Elizabeth I, in 1589; as a result, his annual income from the royal court amounted to the amount of 3.200 pounds.

In 1613, the opportunity finally arose for a more significant career advancement. After the death of Sir Thomas Fleming, the position of Chief Justice of the King became vacant, and Bacon proposed to the King that Edward Coke be transferred to this position. The philosopher's proposal was accepted, Kok was transferred, Sir Henry Hobart took his place in the court of general jurisdiction, and Bacon himself received the position of attorney general (attorney general) (eng. attorney-general). The fact that the king heeded Bacon's advice and carried it out speaks of their trusting relationship; contemporary John Chamberlain (1553-1628) commented on this: "There is a strong fear that ... Bacon may prove to be a dangerous tool." . In 1616, June 9, Bacon becomes a member of the Privy Council, not without the help of the young favorite of King George Villiers, later Duke of Buckingham.

The period from 1617 to the beginning of 1621 was the most fruitful for Bacon both in career advancement and in scientific work: on March 7, 1617, he became Lord Privy Seal of England; on January 4, 1618, he was appointed to the highest post in the state - he became Lord Chancellor; in July of the same year, he was introduced to the circle of peers of England by conferring the title of Baron Verulamsky, and on January 27, 1621, he was elevated to the next level of the peerage, making him Viscount of St. Albans. On October 12, 1620, one of his most famous works was published: "The New Organon", the second, according to the philosopher's plan, part of the unfinished general work - "The Great Restoration of Sciences". This work was the completion of many years of work; 12 variants were written before the final text was published.

Indictment and withdrawal from politics

Needing subsidies, James I initiated the convocation of parliament: in November 1620, its collection was scheduled for January 1621. Having gathered, the deputies expressed dissatisfaction with the growth of monopolies, during the distribution and subsequent activity of which many abuses arose. This dissatisfaction had practical consequences: Parliament brought a number of monopoly entrepreneurs to justice, after which it continued its investigation. A specially appointed commission found abuses and punished some officials of the state chancellery. On March 14, 1621, a certain Christopher Aubrey, in a court of the House of Commons, accused the chancellor himself - Bacon - of taking a bribe from him during the hearing of the Aubrey case, after which the decision was not made in his favor. Bacon's letter, written on the occasion, shows that he understood Aubrey's accusation as part of a pre-arranged plot against him. Almost immediately after this, a second accusation arose (the case of Edward Egerton), which the parliamentarians studied, found just and demanding the punishment of the chancellor, after which they appointed a meeting with the Lords for March 19th. On the appointed day, Bacon could not come due to illness, and sent an apology letter to the Lords with a request to set another date for his defense and a personal meeting with witnesses. The accusations continued to accumulate, but the philosopher still hoped to justify himself, declaring the absence of malicious intent in his actions, however, admitting the violations made by him according to the practice of that time of general bribery. As he wrote to James I: “…I can be morally unstable and share the abuses of time. ... I will not deceive about my innocence, as I have already written to the lords ... but I will tell them in the language that my heart speaks to me, justifying myself, mitigating my guilt and sincerely admitting it ” .

Over time, in the second half of April, Bacon realized that he would not be able to defend himself, and on April 20 he sent a general confession of his guilt to the Lords. The Lords considered this insufficient and sent him a list of 28 accusatory positions, demanding a written answer. Bacon responded on April 30, admitting his guilt, and hoping for justice, generosity and mercy of the court. On May 3rd, 1621, after careful deliberation, the lords issued a sentence: a fine of 40,000 pounds, imprisonment in the Tower for a term determined by the king, deprivation of the right to hold any public office, sit in parliament and visit court. There was also a proposal to subject the philosopher to dishonor - in this case, to deprive him of the titles of baron and viscount, but it did not pass the vote.

The sentence was executed only to a small extent: on May 31, Bacon was imprisoned in the Tower, but after two or three days the king released him, subsequently also forgiving the fine. This was followed by a general forgiveness (although not annulling the verdict of parliament), and the long-awaited permission to be at court, probably given with the help of the king's favorite Buckingham. However, Bacon never again sat in Parliament, and his career as a statesman ended. With his fate, he confirmed the correctness of his own words, said in the essay "On a high position": “It is not easy to stand on a high place, but there is no way back, except for a fall, or at least a sunset ...” .

Last days

Bacon died after catching a cold during one of the physical experiments - he stuffed the carcass of a chicken with snow, which he bought from a poor woman, to test the effect of cold on the safety of meat supplies. Already seriously ill, in a last letter to one of his friends, Lord Arendel, he triumphantly reports that this experience was a success. The scientist was sure that science should give man power over nature and thereby improve his life.

Religion

Personal life

In 1603, Robert Cecil introduced Bacon to the widow of London elder Benedict Burnham, Dorothy, who remarried Sir John Packington, mother of the future wife of the philosopher Alice Burnham (1592-1650). The wedding of 45-year-old Francis and 14-year-old Alice took place on May 10, 1606. Francis and Alice had no children.

Philosophy and works

His work is the basis and popularization of the inductive methodology of scientific research, often called the Baconian method. Induction gains knowledge from the surrounding world through experiment, observation, and hypothesis testing. In the context of their time, such methods were used by alchemists. Bacon outlined his approach to the problems of science in the treatise The New Organon, published in 1620. In this treatise, he proclaimed the goal of science to increase the power of man over nature, which he defined as soulless material, the purpose of which is to be used by man.

Bacon created a two-letter cipher, now called the Bacon cipher.

There is a "Baconian" version, unrecognized by the scientific community, attributing to Bacon the authorship of the texts known as Shakespeare.

scientific knowledge

In general, Bacon considered the great dignity of science almost self-evident and expressed this in his famous aphorism “Knowledge is power” (lat. Scientia potentia est).

However, there have been many attacks on science. After analyzing them, Bacon came to the conclusion that God did not forbid the knowledge of nature. On the contrary, he gave man a mind that yearns to know the universe. People only have to understand that there are two kinds of knowledge: 1) knowledge of good and evil, 2) knowledge of things created by God.

The knowledge of good and evil is forbidden to people. God gives it to them through the Bible. And man, on the contrary, must cognize created things with the help of his mind. This means that science should take its rightful place in the "kingdom of man." The purpose of science is to multiply the strength and power of people, to provide them with a rich and dignified life.

Method of knowledge

Pointing to the deplorable state of science, Bacon said that until now, discoveries have been made by chance, not methodically. There would be many more if the researchers were armed with the right method. The method is the way, the main means of research. Even a lame person walking on the road will overtake a healthy person running off-road.

Induction can be complete (perfect) and incomplete. Full induction means the regular repetition and exhaustibility of some property of the object in the experiment under consideration. Inductive generalizations start from the assumption that this will be the case in all similar cases. In this garden, all lilacs are white - a conclusion from annual observations during its flowering period.

Incomplete induction includes generalizations made on the basis of a study of not all cases, but only some (conclusion by analogy), because, as a rule, the number of all cases is practically unlimited, and theoretically it is impossible to prove their infinite number: all swans are white for us reliably until we see black individual. This conclusion is always probabilistic.

In trying to create a "true induction", Bacon was looking not only for facts confirming a certain conclusion, but also for facts refuting it. He thus armed natural science with two means of investigation: enumeration and exclusion. And it is the exceptions that matter most. With the help of his method, for example, he established that the "form" of heat is the movement of the smallest particles of the body.

So, in his theory of knowledge, Bacon rigorously pursued the idea that true knowledge follows from sensory experience. Such a philosophical position is called empiricism. Bacon was not only its founder, but also the most consistent empiricist.

Obstacles in the way of knowledge

Francis Bacon divided the sources of human errors that stand in the way of knowledge into four groups, which he called "ghosts" or "idols" (lat. idola) . These are “ghosts of the family”, “ghosts of the cave”, “ghosts of the square” and “ghosts of the theater”.

1. The "ghosts of the race" stem from human nature itself, they do not depend on culture or on the individuality of a person. “The human mind is likened to an uneven mirror, which, mixing its own nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.”
2. "Ghosts of the cave" are individual errors of perception, both congenital and acquired. “After all, in addition to the mistakes inherent in the human race, everyone has their own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature.”
3. "Ghosts of the square (market)" - a consequence of the social nature of man - communication and use of language in communication. “People are united by speech. Words are established according to the understanding of the crowd. Therefore, the bad and absurd establishment of words surprisingly besieges the mind.
4. "Phantoms of the theater" are false ideas about the structure of reality that a person assimilates from other people. “At the same time, we mean here not only general philosophical teachings, but also numerous principles and axioms of sciences, which have received strength as a result of tradition, faith and carelessness.”

Followers

The most significant followers of the empirical line in the philosophy of modern times: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume - in England; Etienne Condillac, Claude Helvetius, Paul Holbach, Denis Diderot - in France. The Slovak philosopher Jan Bayer was also a preacher of F. Bacon's empiricism.

Compositions

• « " (1st edition, 1597),
• « On the dignity and multiplication of sciences"(1605),
• « Experiments, or instructions, moral and political"(2nd edition, - 38 essays, 1612),
• « The Great Restoration of the Sciences, or the New Organon"(1620),
• « Experiments, or instructions, moral and political» (3rd edition, - 58 essays, 1625)
• « New Atlantis» (1627).

More detailed works of the philosopher are presented in the following English articles: Bibliography Francis Bacon , Works Francis Bacon.

Image in modern culture

To the cinema

• "Queen Elizabeth" / "Les amours de la reine Élisabeth" (France;) directors Henri Defontaine and Louis Mercanton, in the role of Lord Bacon - Jean Chamroy.
• "The Virgin Queen" / "The virgin Queen" (UK;) directed by Koki Gedroits, in the role of Lord Bacon - Neil Stuke.

Notes

1. "Bacon" entry in Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.
2. , With. 11-13.
3. , With. fourteen.
4. , With. 14-15.
5. , With. 6.
6. Mortimer Ian, book "Elizabethian England. Guidebook traveler in time" (Russian). Electronic library "Litmir", Registrant ELENA KOZACHEK (Ukraine). Retrieved February 5, 2017.
7. , With. 135.
8. A. I. Herzen. Works in 30 volumes, vol. III. M., 1954, p. 254.
9. , With. 2.
10. , With. 6.
11. , With. 7.
12. Subbotin A. L. translated as "Notes on the state of Europe."
13. , With. 136.
14. , With. ten.
15. , With. 331.
16. , With. eight.
17. , With. 9.
18. A. W. Green. Sir Francis Bacon, New York, 1966, p. 57-58
19. F. Bacon. Works…, Collect. and ed. by J.Spedding, R.L. Ellis and D.D. Heath, Vol. 1 - 14. New York, 1968, vol. 8, p. 334.